They came with crosses on their cloaks and swords at their sides — warriors of faith and order, who built castles as symbols of power across the Baltic. But just as swiftly as they rose, the Teutonic Knights fell, undone by shifting alliances, fierce battles, and the limits of conquest. Standing today in the shadow of Malbork’s massive brick walls, one can still feel echoes of their rise… and their unraveling.
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Last year, I had the chance to visit a location that I saw many times from far away sitting in a train en route to the Baltic Sea. While I had been there once during my teenage years, my memory of that visit is faint. This location is the Malbork Castle, boasting a remarkable history despite having undergone extensive reconstruction after the ravages of war. The castle stands as a silent witness to historical events and was once a seat of power that held sway over the southern and eastern Baltic regions during medieval times. Delving into the story of its founders – the Teutonic Knights – is essential to comprehending the history of this region.
The Teutonic Order, officially known as the Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem, emerged during the Third Crusade in 1190. Initially founded by German crusaders as a charitable institution aimed at aiding German-speaking pilgrims, the order swiftly evolved into a military-religious organization. Their dual mission encompassed providing medical care and protecting Christians in the Holy Land.
Over time, the focus of the Crusades shifted. The Teutonic Knights redirected their attention to the pagan territories of the Baltic region. Under the leadership of Grand Master Hermann von Salza, the Teutonic Knights undertook the Northern Crusades, a series of campaigns aimed at converting the indigenous people to Christianity and establish Christian rule in the region. Those societies referred to as pagan Prussians were the native populations residing in the Baltic territories organized into tribal structures, with each tribe having its own leaders and social hierarchy. Their religious practices were closely tied to nature, with a reverence for natural elements and spirits.
Statues of Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order in the Lower Castle of Malbork.
In 1226, the Teutonic Knights received an invitation from Conrad I, the Duke of Masovia, a territory within the fragmented Polish realm. Duke Conrad, facing internal strife and external threats from pagan tribes in the Baltic region, sought assistance from the Teutonic Knights to collaborate in the conversion and subjugation of the indigenous peoples in his realm. This invitation marked a turning point in the order’s mission and expanded their sphere of influence into the northern reaches of Europe.
But the Teutonic Knights were not the first Christian order in this area. Already in 1202, the Bishop Albert of Riga founded the Livonian Brothers of the Sword to protect newly seized Christian territories from external threats and to carry out the Christianization of pagan populations in the region. They operated primarily in Livonia, a historical region that encompasses parts of present-day Latvia and Estonia. In 1237, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword merged with the Teutonic Knights, forming a unified entity known as the Livonian Order within the Teutonic Order.
The Teutonic Knights set out to achieve their objectives. The order’s commitment went beyond military campaigns; they aimed to create a sustainable Christian presence in the Baltic. This led to the establishment of a monastic state in the conquered territories, where the order held both religious and administrative authority. While monastic states were rooted in religious principles, they also had secular functions such as governance, justice administration, and economic management.
Together with the Livonian Order, they ruled over Eastern Prussia, present-day northern Poland and western Russia (today’s Kaliningrad). Livonia encompassed parts of present-day Latvia and Estonia, Courland corresponding to parts of present-day Latvia and Lithuania, Semigallia and Selonia covering territories located in present-day Latvia, and land inhabited by Estonians corresponding to vast parts of the modern-day country of Estonia. On this list, you will not see parts of the present-day Lithuania. In the early stages, the Teutonic Order sought to expand its influence into territories that overlapped with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was a formidable political entity in the region. The Lithuanians successfully defended their territories against the encroachment of the Teutonic Knights.
Winrich von Kniprode, serving as the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from 1351 until his death in 1382, played a crucial role in the Northern Crusades. Under his leadership, the Teutonic Order engaged in campaigns against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
To secure their foothold and protect the burgeoning Christian community, the Teutonic Knights initiated the construction of a network of castles and defensive structures. These fortifications served as military bases, administrative centers, and symbols of Christian dominance. The construction of castles, strategically positioned across the conquered territories, became a hallmark of the Teutonic Knights’ approach to territorial expansion. The network was based on the rule that the distance between the neighboring castles should not be longer than one day of a horse ride.
Among the notable castles built during this period was Malbork Castle, strategically located on the Nogat River. Originally named Marienburg, it served as the Teutonic Knights’ headquarters and became one of the largest brick castles in the world. Other important castles of the Teutonic Knights were Königsberg (Kaliningrad) Castle in present-day Russia, Nidzica Castle, Thorn (Toruń) Castle, Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) Castle, Allenstein (Olsztyn) Castle, and many others in present-day Poland. Livonian Knights castles were located further to the north like Cēsis Castle in present-day Latvia, Kuressaare Castle, Rakvere Castle, Viljandi Castle in present-day Estonia.
Impressions of the Malbork Castle. Malbork Castle, situated on the Nogat River in Poland, stands as one of the largest brick castles in the world. Originally named Marienburg, it served as the headquarters of the Teutonic Knights, a medieval military order. The castle, a monumental fortress, symbolizes the military and administrative might of the Teutonic Order during its campaigns in the Baltic region. Its strategic location and imposing architecture made it a center for consolidating Christian rule, protecting the Order’s territories, and leaving a lasting architectural legacy in the historical tapestry of Eastern Europe.
The economic landscape of the Teutonic Order’s rule was characterized by a strategic blend of agriculture, trade, resource exploitation, and urban development.
Recognizing the fertile Baltic lands’ potential, the order introduced advanced farming techniques like crop rotation to maximize agricultural output. The implementation of a manorial system organized land utilization, creating self-sufficient estates where the local population worked the land in exchange for protection and resources. The manorial system involved a lord’s ownership of a large estate, including a village with peasants, arable land, and a manorial court.
Trade and commerce thrived, leveraging the strategic location along the Baltic Sea. Key ports like Danzig (Present-day Poland), Riga (present-day Latvia) or Reval (Tallinn, present-day Estonia, that time a key city under Danish realm) emerged as vital trade hubs, facilitating the exchange of goods with other Hanseatic League cities and beyond. The Hanseatic League, a medieval commercial and defensive confederation, comprised cities along the Baltic and North Sea, fostering economic cooperation and mutual defense. Beyond these cities, the league established a vast network of trade, extending its influence and partnerships across Northern and Central Europe. Danzig was under the control of the Teutonic Order for a period of time. However, but after joining the Hanseatic League and gaining prominence as a major trading city, it reasserted independence. Riga, like Danzig, initially fell under the influence of the Teutonic Order during the Northern Crusades. Subsequently, it became a key city under the governance of the Livonian Order. And later also reasserted independence.
The Teutonic State’s near-monopoly on the lucrative amber trade, known as “Baltic gold“, significantly contributed to its economic strength. Mining operations, particularly in the extraction of iron and silver, added to the economic diversity of the Teutonic State. Urban development flourished in cities like Königsberg and Marienburg, becoming centers of economic activity and craftsmanship. Craftsmanship, including metalworking and shipbuilding, thrived in these urban centers.
Financial administration played a crucial role in managing the economic affairs of the state. The order collected taxes, including tithes from agricultural produce and tariffs on trade. The Teutonic Order imposed tariffs on goods passing through its territories, leveraging its strategic position along trade routes, including controlling key ports and river routes to generate revenue. The Vistula River, a major waterway in the region, became a source of contention between the Teutonic Order and Poland. The two powers clashed over control of the lucrative trade along the Vistula. The revenues from those diversified activities contributed to the financial stability of the order, supporting their military endeavors and infrastructure projects.
The success of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic brought challenges. Strained relations with neighboring powers, internal conflicts, and financial difficulties tested the order’s resilience.
In the early Middle Ages, by the time of the Teutonic Order’s invitation by the Masovian Duke Conrad I in the 13th century, Poland had been a collection of loosely connected territories with various dukes and rulers, but the process of political centralization had already begun. In 1386, Queen Jadwiga of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, married, consolidating two powerful states. The Teutonic Knights sought to maintain their dominance, while Poland-Lithuania sought to expand its influence and control. The imposition of tariffs on trade by the Teutonic Knights and conflicts over commercial interests further fueled tensions.
On the other hand, internal challenges within the Teutonic Order, including financial difficulties and discontent among the knights, weakened the order’s position. The knights were divided over strategies, and some were critical of the Grand Master’s leadership. These financial challenges were influenced by a combination of factors, including the cost of military campaigns, internal mismanagement, and external pressures. The traditional sources of financial support for religious and military orders, such as donations from nobility and the broader Catholic Church, began to decline. The order’s attempts to extract resources and taxes from the local population led to tensions and resistance.
The Battle of Tannenberg in 1410 marked a turning point, as the order suffered a significant defeat against the Polish-Lithuanian forces. This defeat forced a reassessment of goals and a recognition of the changing geopolitical landscape.
Ulrich von Jungingen, a notable figure in the history of the Teutonic Order, served as its Grand Master from 1407 until his death in 1410. His leadership was marked by the challenges posed by the growing power of Poland and Lithuania. Under his command, the Teutonic Order faced the critical Battle of Tannenberg (Grunwald) in 1410 against the forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The battle resulted in a significant defeat for the Teutonic Order, impacting its influence in the Baltic region.
Later conflicts escalated between the Order and the Prussian cities. A military conflict broke out, known as the Thirteen Years’ War (also known as the War of the Cities) in 1454. This conflict witnessed a coalition of Prussian cities, spearheaded by the Prussian Confederation formed by cities like Danzig (Gdańsk), Thorn (Toruń), and Elbing (Elbląg) and gentry, challenging the authority of the Teutonic Knights.
The Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 acknowledged the autonomy of the Prussian cities and entailed the division of the Teutonic Order’s domains into Royal Prussia and Ducal Prussia. Royal Prussia included territories in the western part of the Teutonic Order’s domains and was placed under the suzerainty of the King of Poland. Malbork Castle from that point served as one of the several Polish royal residences. The Teutonic Order retained control over Ducal Prussia, which comprised the eastern part of the Teutonic Order’s former territories. In 1525, in line with the Treaty of Cracow signed between the Teutonic Order and the Polish-Lithuanian Union, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Albert of Hohenzollern, secularized Ducal Prussia. This transformation led to the establishment of the Duchy of Prussia, a secular and hereditary state. Albert converted to Protestantism and became the first Duke of Prussia, aligning the region with the emerging Protestant faith.
Albert of Hohenzollern, a member of the prominent Hohenzollern family, served as the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from 1511 to 1525. During his leadership, he faced internal challenges, financial difficulties, and the growing influence of the Protestant Reformation. In a significant turn of events, Albert converted to Lutheranism in 1525, secularizing the Order’s territories and establishing the secular Duchy of Prussia under his rule.
Despite secularization, the Teutonic Order persisted as a religious institution. It weathered relocations, transitions, and conflicts, maintaining a presence into contemporary times as a charitable organization. The legacy of the Teutonic Knights, intertwined with Livonia and the Livonian Order, endures in the historical and architectural tapestry of the Baltic region. The castles, churches, and remnants of medieval fortifications, including the awe-inspiring Malbork Castle, stand as tangible reminders of a complex chapter in the history of Eastern Europe.