Italian unification * Risorgimento * Victor Emmanuel II * Cavour * Garibaldi * Mazzini
When I last visited Italy, in Bari in the south, I hired a car to explore the surrounding area rather than limiting myself to the city alone. It turned out that the best chance of finding a parking space was along the city’s main boulevard, Corso Cavour. That prompted me to ask myself: who was the person after whom this prominent street was named? – The answer was that Camillo Cavour was the first Prime Minister of united Italy, appointed by Victor Emmanuel II. Just a few days ago, I caught an episode – perhaps on the BBC – featuring actor Stanley Tucci travelling across Italy in search of authentic local flavours. Coincidentally, in one of the scenes, he visited a restaurant located directly opposite the former office of Cavour in Turin. At the time when Cavour was in office, Turin served as the capital of Italy. Cavour was known to dine there daily, always sitting by the window so he could keep an eye out for his assistant. If the assistant waved a white handkerchief from the office window, it was a sign that Cavour needed to return to his duties.
This anecdote offers an excellent opportunity to delve into the history of Italian unification or Risorgimento and to reflect on its key protagonists.
Camillo Cavour, the first Prime Minister of united Italy.
Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Italy – much like throughout the majority of its earlier history – did not exist as a unified state in the modern sense of the word. The Italian Peninsula was once again fragmented into a number of independent political entities, often differing in their systems of governance, economies, and cultures. Crucially, many of these states were either under the influence or direct control of foreign powers.
In the north lay the Kingdom of Sardinia (comprising Piedmont and the island of Sardinia) – the only significant political body governed by a native dynasty, the House of Savoy, which managed to retain a relative degree of autonomy. Adjacent to it was the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, subordinate to the Austrian Empire, and destined to become a principal stronghold of resistance against future unification efforts.
In central Italy stretched the vast Papal States, under the direct rule of the Pope, who held not only spiritual authority but also exercised absolute temporal power as a monarch. To the south was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, encompassing all of southern Italy and the island of Sicily, governed by the Spanish Bourbon dynasty.
Beyond these main powers, there existed several smaller duchies, such as Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, often ruled by members of dynasties allied with Austria. This political configuration not only hindered the unification of Italy but also entrenched the Peninsula’s dependency on external European powers.
As a result, the Italian people found themselves living in a fragmented political landscape, which intensified social tensions, deepened regional disparities, and gave rise to increasingly powerful nationalist aspirations, encapsulated in the idea of Risorgimento -the unification of Italy into a single, independent nation-state.
The first attempts to unify Italy in the 19th century were predominantly ideological and revolutionary in nature. In response to the political fragmentation of the Italian Peninsula and the dominance of foreign powers, there emerged a growing societal yearning for national unity and sovereignty.
During the 1830s, several movements inspired by Romanticism, the French Revolution, and democratic principles began to take shape. A central figure of this era was Giuseppe Mazzini – an ideologue, journalist, and underground activist – who founded the organisation Giovine Italia (Young Italy). Its principal aim was the overthrow of monarchies, the unification of the nation, and the establishment of a republic.
Members of the organisation engaged in clandestine activities, organised uprisings, and distributed manifestos urging the people to embrace a national awakening. Although most of these insurrections ended in failure, their ideological impact was profound – for the first time, Italians began to perceive their land not as a patchwork of duchies and kingdoms, but as a single political and cultural entity, deserving of its own unified state.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), in his youth, founded “Giovine Italia” (Young Italy) – an organisation that for the first time clearly articulated the goal of unifying Italy as a republic. His revolutionary activity soon made him an enemy of the monarchy and the Church, forcing him to spend most of his life in exile. He inspired many Italians, including Giuseppe Garibaldi, who became a member of the movement Mazzini had established. However, Mazzini rejected the monarchic unification of 1861, and was seen by the new authorities as a threat to public order and national unity. Even after unification, in old age, he remained under surveillance and was formally pursued by the state, which feared that his republican ideals might incite further social unrest.
Another pivotal figure in the unification of Italy was Giuseppe Garibaldi, who began his revolutionary career as a young sailor, captivated by the republican and nationalist ideals promoted by Giuseppe Mazzini. In the 1830s, he joined Mazzini’s movement Giovine Italia, which called for the unification of Italy as a republic. Charged with subversive activity by the authorities of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Garibaldi was forced into exile and spent several years in South America, where he fought in various military conflicts. These experiences earned him valuable combat skills and a reputation as a charismatic commander.
Upon returning to Europe, he became involved in the Revolutions of 1848, and gained particular renown during the defence of the Roman Republic in 1849. This short-lived republic was established in the Papal States following a revolution that temporarily deposed the Pope’s secular authority in Rome. Together with Mazzini, Garibaldi sought to defend the new regime against French intervention, which – ostensibly to protect the papacy – restored Pope Pius IX to power. Despite the defeat, Garibaldi’s bravery and sacrifice earned him admiration across Italy.
Though initially devoted to Mazzini’s ideals, Garibaldi gradually realised that the unification of Italy would require pragmatic compromise. He aligned himself with the Kingdom of Sardinia’s monarchist camp, recognising it as the most realistic force capable of uniting the country.
The culmination of his efforts came in the form of the “Expedition of the Thousand” in 1860, during which he and a volunteer army – the Redshirts – conquered Sicily and southern Italy, toppling Bourbon rule. After his triumph, he met King Victor Emmanuel II in Teano, and – despite his republican convictions – symbolically handed over authority of the liberated territories, acknowledging the king as the only viable figure to lead a unified Italy.
Although his relations with the king and conservative elites were often strained, Garibaldi’s decision enabled the incorporation of the south into the Kingdom of Italy and significantly accelerated the unification process.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) was an Italian revolutionary, soldier, and national hero, and one of the principal architects of Italian unification. He began his political activity as a follower of Mazzini’s ideals, joining the Giovine Italia movement. Condemned for subversive activity, he went into exile in South America, where he gained valuable military experience. Upon his return to Europe, he distinguished himself during the defence of the Roman Republic (1849) and in the broader struggle for Italy’s liberation. He achieved his greatest fame with the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, during which he liberated southern Italy from Bourbon rule and handed power to King Victor Emmanuel II. Until the end of his life, he remained a symbol of the fight for freedom and national unity.
Italian unification * Risorgimento * Victor Emmanuel II * Cavour * Garibaldi * Mazzini
Ultimately, the Kingdom of Sardinia, encompassing Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, with its capital in Turin, became the centre of Italy’s unification. It was the most modern and liberal state on the Italian Peninsula, equipped with a constitution and a well-developed administrative apparatus. Its ruler, Victor Emmanuel II, played a pivotal role in unifying the Italian territories.
Following the abdication of his father, Charles Albert, in 1849, Victor Emmanuel II ascended the throne in the wake of a military defeat by Austria. He retained the liberal constitution (the Statuto Albertino), but recognised the need for a strong, modern government – one that could maintain internal order while preparing the country for future transformation and growth. This is where Camillo Cavour enters the historical stage.
Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, was born in Turin into a wealthy aristocratic family from Piedmont. From a young age, he distinguished himself through sharp intellect, pragmatism, and a deep interest in public affairs. Though trained at a military academy, he soon abandoned a military career in favour of economic, journalistic, and political pursuits.
Cavour was deeply influenced by liberalism, capitalism, and the modernity of Western Europe, especially Britain and France. He believed that Italy should not be unified through revolution, but rather through deliberate reform and astute diplomacy. Unlike Mazzini or Garibaldi, he was not a romantic patriot, but a pragmatist, convinced that unification must proceed gradually, starting with the strengthening of the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Cavour did not enter government as Prime Minister straight away. He began as a parliamentarian and journalist, gradually earning the support of the moderate bourgeoisie through his liberal views. In 1850, he was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, and later became Minister of Finance and the Treasury. His economic reforms and the modernisation of the taxation system delivered tangible results, clearly demonstrating his administrative competence.
Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810–1861) was an Italian politician, Count, and statesman, and one of the chief architects of Italian unification. He came from an aristocratic Piedmontese family and played a crucial role as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A firm supporter of constitutional monarchy, modern economic reforms, and diplomacy as a tool of statecraft, Cavour was instrumental in securing French support in the war against Austria (1859). This alliance laid the groundwork for the unification of the Italian Peninsula. After the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, Cavour became its first Prime Minister. However, he died only a few months later, not living to see the full unification of the country.
In 1852, following a political crisis and the weakening of the previous government led by Massimo d’Azeglio, King Victor Emmanuel II entrusted Cavour with the task of forming a new cabinet. Cavour became Prime Minister, simultaneously overseeing both foreign affairs and finance. He immediately embarked on a sweeping programme of modernisation, expanding industry, infrastructure (notably the railway network), education, and the military.
At the same time, Cavour worked diligently to ensure that Sardinia would be taken seriously on the international stage. He understood that defeating Austria, the principal opponent of unification, would be impossible without the backing of European powers. A crucial turning point in his diplomacy was his rapprochement with Napoleon III, Emperor of France. In 1858, Cavour met secretly with the emperor in Plombières, where they devised a plan: France would support Sardinia in a war against Austria in exchange for the cession of Savoy and Nice.
In 1859, the war with Austria commenced and, though it ended prematurely, it resulted in a partial success – Sardinia gained control of Lombardy. Although Cavour was displeased by Napoleon’s unexpected halt to the campaign, he soon managed to annex additional central Italian states – Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and others – greatly expanding the kingdom’s territory and bringing the vision of unity closer to reality.
One of Cavour’s greatest challenges was reconciling Garibaldi’s revolutionary actions with the interests of the monarchy. When Garibaldi launched his southern campaign in 1860, Cavour feared it might lead to civil war or provoke foreign intervention. To avert this, he dispatched royal troops southwards to take over the territories liberated by Garibaldi before he could declare a republic.
The situation culminated in the meeting between Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II in Teano – carefully orchestrated by Cavour to symbolise national unity and to legitimise the king’s authority over the newly unified lands.
Victor Emmanuel II (1820–1878) was King of Sardinia from 1849, and from 1861 the first King of unified Italy. He ascended the throne following the abdication of his father, Charles Albert, at a difficult time for the Kingdom of Sardinia, after its defeat in the war against Austria. Together with Prime Minister Camillo Cavour, he pursued a policy aimed at uniting Italy under a constitutional monarchy. Through a combination of diplomatic efforts, war with Austria, and Garibaldi’s southern campaign, various Italian territories were gradually annexed. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, and Victor Emmanuel II was declared its king, retaining his Sardinian regnal number to emphasise the continuity of royal authority. In 1870, following the capture of Rome, he completed the unification process, making the city the capital of Italy.
Italian unification * Risorgimento * Victor Emmanuel II * Cavour * Garibaldi * Mazzini
Thus, Garibaldi, at the head of a volunteer army of a thousand Redshirts, set out from Genoa to Sicily, launching the legendary Expedition of the Thousand. His lightning victories led to the collapse of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and paved the way for the conquest of southern Italy.
Although Victor Emmanuel II and Garibaldi were ideologically opposed – the former a monarch, the latter a republican – they both recognised the supremacy of national unity over personal beliefs. The climactic moment of their cooperation came with the historic meeting at Teano, orchestrated by Cavour on 26 October 1860. There, Garibaldi symbolically handed over the territories he had conquered to the king, acknowledging him as the legitimate ruler of a united Italy.
This gesture held enormous political and propagandistic significance, as it legitimised Victor Emmanuel II as the symbol of national unity and the future King of all Italians.
In March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in Turin, and Victor Emmanuel II became its first king. Although the unification was not yet complete – Venice and Rome remained outside the new state’s borders – it marked a turning point in Italian history.
Camillo Cavour became the first Prime Minister of the newly unified Italy, but his tenure was tragically short. He died unexpectedly in June 1861, just a few months after the proclamation of unification, at the age of fifty. Although Cavour did not live to see the annexation of Venice (1866) and Rome (1870), his contribution to Italian unification is inestimable. He was the architect of the operation, who – despite never wielding a weapon in battle – guided Italy through diplomacy, reform, and strategic alliances toward unity.
The final phase of unification came in 1870, when, after the withdrawal of French troops from Rome, the Papal States were annexed, and Rome was declared the capital of the new nation.
Victor Emmanuel II entered the annals of history as the Padre della Patria (Father of the Fatherland) – a monarch who, through political skill, compromise, and cooperation with diverse forces, succeeded in founding the unified Kingdom of Italy.