A Quick Guide Through the History of Poland

2024 By justmovingaround in History Tags: Jagiellonians, liberum veto, partitions, Piasts, Poland, Polish history, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Early Medieval History

The history of Poland dates back to the early medieval period when Slavic tribes settled in the area. By the 10th century, the Piast dynasty began to consolidate power. The first historically recorded ruler, Mieszko I, converted to Christianity in 966 AD, an event often considered the foundation of the Polish state. Mieszko’s son, Bolesław I the Brave, was crowned the first King of Poland in 1025. Bolesław established a strong monarchy and pursued territorial expansion, including efforts to control parts of modern-day Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Ukraine. However, his death led to internal strife and fragmentation. From the 12th to the 14th centuries, Poland was divided into smaller duchies under various Piast princes. This period, known as the Fragmentation, weakened central authority and made the territory vulnerable to external threats. The Mongol invasions of the 13th century further devastated the region.

Reunification and the Golden Age

The 14th century saw the reunification of Poland under the last Piast king, Casimir III the Great, who strengthened the country through legal and economic reforms. In 1386, Poland formed a dynastic union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania through the marriage of Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania, who became King Władysław II Jagiełło. This union created one of the largest and most powerful states in Europe.

Cracow historical city / Kraków stare miasto, history of Poland

Cracow Castle, the seat of the Jagiellonian dynasty

During the Jagiellonian dynasty, Poland and Lithuania experienced significant economic growth through agricultural expansion, trade, and urbanisation. The introduction of the three-field system, development of manorial farms, and active trade routes boosted productivity and commerce, with Baltic Sea ports like Gdańsk playing a vital role. Urban growth fostered industries and a burgeoning bourgeois class. An Italian Bona Sforza, through marriage Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania, had a profound impact by introducing agricultural reforms, promoting land reclamation, improving infrastructure, and implementing financial reforms. At its peak, the Jagiellonian dynasty ruled over territories now part of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, western Russia, Latvia, southern Estonia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia. Unfortunately as Sigismund II Augustus of the Jagiellonian dynasty had no legitimate heirs, the question of succession became a matter of significant concern.

The Rise and Downfall of Noble Rule

The Union of Lublin in 1569 further formalised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unique political entity characterised by political decentralisation and noble democracy in the history of Poland A unified parliament (Sejm) was established, which included representatives from both Poland and Lithuania. This Sejm would meet regularly to decide on matters affecting the entire Commonwealth. While maintaining separate armies, treasuries, and legal systems, the Commonwealth shared a single currency and conducted foreign affairs jointly. The agreement also aimed to solve the problem of throne succession by introducing an elective monarchy system. The Commonwealth’s political system was unique for its time, characterised by political freedom for the nobility, regular parliamentary sessions, and an elective monarchy. In the mid-17th century, the liberum veto was introduced, allowing any member of parliament to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation passed during that session by shouting “I do not allow”! The first recorded use of the liberum veto occurred in 1652 when a member of the nobility used it to disrupt proceedings. This incident set a precedent that was increasingly exploited in subsequent years. Intended to protect the interests of individual nobles, it often resulted in legislative paralysis and was a significant factor contributing to the eventual decline and fragmentation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the same time, the Commonwealth faced wars with Sweden, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. The Deluge, a series of mid-17th-century wars, particularly the Swedish invasion, caused widespread devastation. In an attempt to reform and revitalise the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Sejm proclaimed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which aimed to abolish the liberum veto and centralise the government of the Commonwealth. However, conservative factions within the nobility, accustomed to their extensive privileges and autonomy, resisted the changes brought by the constitution.

Decline and Partitions

Internal strife, political corruption, and ineffective governance weakened the state. Legislative paralysis and increased foreign interference culminated in the three partitions of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795, which erased Poland from the map of Europe for 123 years. During the partition period, Poles made numerous attempts to regain independence, which ultimately failed. Many Poles emigrated or were forcibly exiled. Despite the partitions, Polish culture and national identity were preserved through literature, education, and the Catholic Church. The collapse of the partitioning powers during World War I created an opportunity for Polish independence. In 1918, after 123 years of partitions, Poland re-emerged as a sovereign state. The Treaty of Versailles recognised Poland’s independence, and the country fought several border wars to define its territory, including conflicts with Ukraine, Lithuania, and Soviet Russia. The interwar period was a time of significant challenges and achievements. Poland faced economic difficulties, political instability, and the need to integrate diverse regions that had been under different foreign administrations.

Modern times

Poland’s location made it a focal point in World War II. The German invasion on 1 September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion on 17 September, led to Poland’s occupation. The war brought immense suffering, with significant portions of the population killed, including six million Polish citizens. After World War II, Poland fell within the Soviet sphere of influence. The early communist period was marked by political repression, economic hardship, and efforts to industrialise the country.

Since the fall of communism in 1990, Poland has undergone significant political, economic, and social transformations, unprecedented in the history of Poland for almost a half millennium. The country adopted a new constitution in 1997 and became a member of NATO in 1999. Poland joined the European Union in 2004, marking a significant milestone in its integration into the Western political and economic sphere.

About BONA SFORZA

On an ELECTED KING, a GREAT BATTLE and a FALL of once a MIGHTY KINGDOM

To my POLAND main site

A Quick Guide Through the History of Poland

Finland’s relations with Russia shortly explained

2024 By justmovingaround in FINLAND, History Tags: Finland, politics, Russia

While walking through Helsinki, it’s hard not to notice traces of Russia’s past – such as the statue of Tsar Alexander II standing proudly in the city’s main square. This striking contrast with today’s tense Finland’s relations with Russia invites a closer look at the history between these two neighbours. Impressions from the National Museum, along with a few historical facts, come together in a simple yet thought-provoking reflection on how the Finns have long strived to maintain their own identity.

Finland’s relations with Russia | Les relations de la Finlande avec la Russie | Finnlands Beziehungen zu Russland | Stosunki Finlandii z Rosją

Our trip to Helsinki was brief. After four busy days on the road exploring the Baltic states, we spent a few days in Tallinn, Estonia’s capital. To reach Helsinki, the capital of Finland, you just take a ferry, and in about three hours, you’re there. It was my first time in Finland, and my understanding of the country was quite basic. Because of my work, I had some idea of its geography and transport system. I was neither surprised seeing people bathing in a swimming pool on the Baltic shore by 17 degrees Celsius, coming in and out of the sauna. Saunas are the Finnish speciality (obviously). I knew the indigenous people in this country were Sami people.

And … I knew that Finland’s relations with Russia through its history were tough (or at least I thought I knew). But that in the main square of Helsinki I would see a statue of a Russian Tsar, and hear that he was loved in this country was more than unexpected.

Statue of Alexander II, Helsinki, Finland. The statue is localised in front of the Helsinki Cathedral.

In one day you cannot learn a country or its history. But as for three hours I left my company with a goal to visit the National Museum of Finland, going through its exhibitions I caught a bit the overall historical contex. Now with plenty of photos made there, with a prospect of visiting Finland once more, it is time to connect the dots.

In the medieval period, Sweden had a significant influence on the region, with the Kingdom of Sweden establishing control over Finland in the 13th century. The area remained under Swedish rule for several centuries. Following the Russo-Swedish War from 1808 to 1809, Finland was ceded from Sweden to Russia. Surprisingly, Finland’s relations with Russia became positive. Tsar Alexander I who ruled Russia in that time recognizing the strategic benefits of possessing Finland, decided to grant it extensive autonomy, establishing the Grand Duchy of Finland as an autonomous part of the Russian Empire. The Diet of Porvoo in 1809 was a key event, where Alexander I affirmed the rights and privileges of the Finns, promising to uphold the country’s laws and religion. This era is often seen as the beginning of a distinct Finnish national identity.

His follower, Tsar Alexander II also positively impacted Finland. His reign is often associated with a period of liberalization and national awakening in Finland. He initiated several reforms that furthered Finnish autonomy. Notably, he restored the Diet of Finland in 1863, after a long period of inactivity, and introduced the Language Ordinance of 1863, which gave Finnish equal status with Swedish. These actions were instrumental in promoting Finnish language and culture. Additionally, under his rule, Finland’s economy and infrastructure saw significant development, including the construction of the Finnish railway network. Alexander II’s era is often seen as a golden age of Finnish autonomy within the Russian Empire. Alexander II was very popular in Finland, and his assassination in 1881 was mourned in the Grand Duchy. His death marked the end of the liberal era, and subsequent Tsars, especially Nicholas II, reversed many of his policies, implementing the Russification efforts.

After Alexander II’s death, his successors initiated policies aimed at strengthening the empire’s unity. This included the Russification of Finland, a policy designed to integrate Finland more closely into the Russian Empire. These efforts involved imposing the Russian language in administration and education, and the introduction of Russian law, which eroded Finnish autonomy. Legislative powers were gradually transferred from Finnish institutions to the Russian emperor and his government. This eroded the unique position Finland had enjoyed and led to widespread resentment among the Finnish population. There was a clampdown on the Finnish press and cultural expressions that were seen as dissenting or promoting Finnish nationalism. Censorship was increased, and many Finnish cultural figures faced persecution.

In response to Russification and the suppression of their rights, Finns began to cultivate a stronger sense of national identity. This period saw the rise of Finnish nationalism, which sought to preserve Finnish culture, language, and autonomy. The resistance was mostly peaceful, focusing on cultural preservation and political lobbying. In 1905, Finns organized a general strike, demanding the restoration of the country’s autonomy and rights. The unrest in Finland coincided with the Russian Revolution. This led to the November Manifesto, in which Nicholas II restored many of the rights that had been previously revoked, including the Finnish Diet’s legislative powers. The turmoil of World War I and the subsequent Russian revolutions in 1917 provided Finland with an opportunity to seek full independence. On December 6, 1917, Finland declared its independence from Russia, which was recognized by the new Bolshevik government.

The Attack, a painting by Edvard Isto National Museum of Finland

The Attack, a painting by Edvard Isto from 1899 has become an emblematic depiction of the Russification of Finland and the Finnish resistance to it. In the painting, the double-headed eagle, a symbol of the Russian Empire, is shown in a menacing posture. One of its heads tears apart the Finnish Law Book, symbolizing Russia’s disregard for Finnish autonomy and legal system. The other head is poised to strike at a female figure, Suomi-neito, the Finnish Maiden. This character is a personification of Finland, often depicted as a young woman in national iconography, representing the nation itself. The imminent attack on Suomi-neito by the eagle is a metaphor for the threat posed by Russian policies to Finnish national identity and autonomy.

Shortly after the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, leading to the Winter War. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Finland put up a strong resistance. The war ended in March 1940 with the Moscow Peace Treaty, wherein Finland ceded approximately 11% of its territory to the Soviet Union but maintained its sovereignty. With the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany in June 1941, Finland’s relations with Russia got yet more complicated, as Finland saw an opportunity to reclaim lost territories joining German foces. Although initially successful, the tide of the war turned, and Finland sought peace with the Soviet Union in 1944, leading to the Armistice of Moscow and later the Paris Peace Treaty in 1947. Finland was required to cede additional territories, pay reparations, and undertake to limit its armed forces. To maintain its sovereignty and a working relationship with the Soviet Union, Finland adopted a policy of neutrality, carefully balancing its relations between the East and the West. While Finland maintained a market economy and a democratic government, it avoided actions that could be perceived as hostile by the Soviet Union. The approach was legalised by Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance Treaty signed in 1948 between Finland and the Soviet Union.

The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 removed the primary threat to Finland’s security and allowed it to pursue a more active role in international affairs, including joining the European Union and participating in NATO’s Partnership for Peace program though it remained for long time outside of NATO. Ultimately Finland joined NATO on 4 April 2023 following Russia’s aggression against Ukraine in February 2022.

Relations between Finland and Russia remain tense. Russia has been expanding its military infrastructure near the Finnish border, prompting Helsinki to bolster its own defences. The eastern border remains closed, with Finland accusing Russia of weaponising migration as a means of political pressure. Despite the strain, Finnish leaders, including President Alexander Stubb, have expressed a cautious openness to restoring ties in the future, contingent on the end of the war in Ukraine and Russia’s adherence to international law.

To my posts on FINLAND and HELSINKI

To my HELSINKI photo gallery

Finland’s relations with Russia shortly explained

Oodi

2024 By justmovingaround in Sightseeing Tags: architecture, Finland, Helsinki, library, monument

Oodi is the Helsinki Central Library, situated at Kansalaistori square in Helsinki, Finland, Northern Europe. It stands as a non-commercial, urban public space accessible to all, directly facing the Parliament Building.

Following three years of construction, Oodi was officially unveiled to the public on December 5, 2018. This significant edifice was presented by the Finnish government to the nation in celebration of its 100th anniversary of independence. Before 1917, Finland was never an independent state. It transitioned from being part of the Kingdom of Sweden to becoming an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire, before finally achieving independence and becoming the nation-state known today as Finland. In a world where independence anniversaries are marked by the construction of traditional monuments, this initiative has sparked interest in numerous European nations. As the guide took us there, I recollected hearing about it in the media as a noteworthy illustration of commemorating the nation’s independence. The endeavor amounted to approximately 98 million euros, encompassing not only the building’s construction, but also the cutting-edge technology and amenities it encompasses.

The exterior, the groundfloor and a view on stairs spanning all floors and the underground section.

Our day in Helsinki proved to be quite tiring. Upon our morning arrival by ferry from Tallinn, Estonia, we first explored the old fortifications located on an island a few kilometers from Helsinki. Subsequently, we ventured into the city center and stumbled upon Oodi, where we could relax on the chairs and take a moment to rest. Later, I left my company to visit the local national museum, only to return to Oodi after three hours, captivated by its interiors and eager to capture them in photographs. However, due to the high volume of visitors, I refrained from taking too many photos out of respect for their privacy.

I appreciate the architectural design of this building. It offers ample open spaces for relaxation and socializing, as well as a variety of rooms for private work or meetings, including a kitechn where people can meet for cooking together. Additionally, it boasts conference rooms and a cinema hall, suited for lectures, film screenings, and different events. The building is structured across three floors. The first floor, essentially the ground level, includes an open space with a small cafeteria, while the basement houses public restrooms. The middle floor provides both open spaces and closed rooms of varying sizes, along with workshops for learning different crafts and large seating steps. Finally, the top floor serves as a library where visitors can freely peruse the collection, find a book, and engage in quiet reading at a desk or in a chair. Also there is an area with plenty of work desks, each equipped with a reading light and power sockets as well as balcony open during the summer season. Oodi has also different music studios, a recording studio with its own control room, and photograph and video studios, as well as a gaming plaza.

The middle flour, where you can meet with friends, work in separate room and learn many hadcrafts.

I didn’t have the chance to thoroughly explore the entire building, but it was filled with people of different ages throughout all areas. I think the idea of such a building would be positively embraced in any city, providing a space for everyone to feel a sense of belonging.

The library at the upper floor.

It is challenging for me to form an opinion about Finnish society after spending just one day in Finland. However, my general knowledge leads me to believe that it is a highly modern society with an outstanding education system and a high standard of living. The education system prioritizes equality, personalized learning paths, and the absence of standardized testing for young children. Finland is a pioneer in technology and innovation, particularly in the fields of telecommunications, digital services, and environmental technology, which was evident in the national museum. What I liked much in the museum was no information overload, with each historical era being presented on interactive boards alongside various exhibits, light displays, and sound presentations. With no prior intel on the country’s history, I quite quickly had a grasp on it. This will be however a topic in a future post.