Castel del Monte. Geometry, Mystery, and Silence

Despite its remote location, Castel del Monte attracts a steady flow of visitors – drawn not only by its UNESCO status, but also by its unique, almost mathematical design. Perched high on a hill and surrounded by quiet countryside, it feels detached from the everyday world, yet still manages to be surprisingly accessible.

Castel del Monte was commissioned by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194–1250), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, who reigned as King of Sicily from 1198, King of Germany from 1212, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220. The Apulia region fell under his direct rule as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, inherited from his mother, Constance of Sicily. It was constructed between 1240 and 1250.

Despite its fortress-like appearance and elevated position, Castel del Monte was not built for military purposes, as it lacks defensive features such as a moat or drawbridge. Its true function remains uncertain, with theories ranging from a hunting lodge or a place of study, to a symbolic expression of imperial power – or even an astronomical observatory.

Castel del Monte on approach

Castel del Monte stands in the Apulia region of south-eastern Italy, within the Alta Murgia National Park. It is located atop a hill 540 metres above sea level, around 20 kilometres from the town of Andria.

We reached Castel del Monte by car. Departing from Bari, the regional capital, we followed the A14 motorway towards Andria and continued along local roads. The drive took just over an hour. At the foot of the hill on which the castle stands, there is a small car park. Although conveniently situated, the parking area is quite limited and can become crowded in peak season. Fortunately, we had no difficulty finding a space, as we visited in mid-November on a misty, drizzling day. From the car park, the ascent to the hilltop is brief and can be done on foot.

Castel del Monte is a masterpiece of medieval architecture, renowned for its strict geometric precision and the harmonious blending of diverse stylistic elements. The core of the structure is a perfect octagon, with eight octagonal towers positioned at each corner. This motif repeats throughout: both floors feature eight rooms arranged around a central octagonal courtyard. Each outer wall is of equal length, and doorways and windows are placed in accordance with a strict axial rhythm, reinforcing the architectural coherence of the whole. The mathematical precision of the layout creates a strong sense of balance and symmetry.

The rooms themselves are architecturally restrained yet refined. The design draws on a mixture of stylistic influences, combining elements of Islamic, Romanesque, and Gothic architecture. Inside, Arab-style pointed arches contrast with classical Greco-Roman tympanums that crown several entrances, while Gothic windows, sculpted from pale limestone and white marble, introduce verticality. The central courtyard, open to the sky, serves both a practical and symbolic role – channelling light into the surrounding roomss while reinforcing the castle’s geometric core.

Today, the interior of Castel del Monte is entirely unfurnished. Visitors are invited to experience the architecture in its purest form – unmediated by decoration or modern reconstruction. The raw stone, the vaulted ceilings, and the spatial rhythm of the layout offer a contemplative, almost a monastic atmosphere.

Frederick II, who commissioned the castle was not only a powerful monarch but also a patron of knowledge. His court was a centre of intellectual exchange, bringing together the scientific, including mathematics and cosmology, and philosophical traditions of the Islamic world, medieval Christianity, and classical antiquity.

Frederick’s fascination with mathematics was reinforced by his association with leading thinkers such as Leonardo of Pisa – better known as Fibonacci. The renowned mathematician, who studied in North Africa, dedicated his Liber quadratorum to the emperor. Other scholars at Frederick’s court, such as Michael Scot and John of Palermo, translated key Arabic texts into Latin, enriching the emperor’s access to advanced ideas in geometry, astronomy, and numerical symbolism.

Although the identity of the architect is unknown, it is widely believed that Frederick himself played a significant role in the conceptualisation of the Castel del Monte. Central to the castle’s design is the number eight. In Christian tradition, the number symbolises regeneration and eternal life; in Islamic architecture, the octagon often mediates between the earthly square and the heavenly circle, reflecting a cosmological balance.

Since its construction in the 1240s, Castel del Monte has undergone several transformations. After Frederick’s death in 1250, it passed into the hands of successive dynasties ruling the Kingdom of Naples. Under Angevin and later Aragonese control, its symbolic imperial role diminished. Over time, it was repurposed – as a hunting lodge, a prison, and a military outpost.

By the 16th and 17th centuries, the castle had fallen into disrepair. Neglected and looted, its fine materials – including columns, marble cladding, and decorative details – were removed or sold. During this period, it also passed into private ownership.

Recognising its cultural significance, the newly unified Italian state acquired the castle in 1876 for 25,000 lire. Restoration work began in 1928 and continued in phases throughout the 20th century. In the 1950s, under the direction of Bruno Malajoli, further interventions helped stabilise the structure and restore elements of its integrity.

In 1996, Castel del Monte was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Today, it is managed by the Italian Ministry of Culture.

While the modern Italian word castello simply means “castle”, the name Castel del Monte uses the older, shortened form castel – and this is no coincidence. Castel is an archaic variant commonly used in the Middle Ages in proper names of places and fortifications. This linguistic form has been preserved in traditional place names such as Castel Gandolfo or Castel San Pietro.

Etymologically, the word derives from the Latin castellum, meaning “fortress” or “stronghold”. The abbreviated form was widely used in medieval geographic naming, much like San is used instead of Santo in the names of saints. Retaining this form in the name of the castle highlights its historical origin and connects it to the linguistic traditions of the time.

Castel del Monte may not overwhelm with grandeur or elaborate exhibitions, but its quiet presence lingers. There’s a sense of order in its geometry, uncertainty in its purpose, and stillness in its setting – a rare combination that makes the visit feel less like ticking off a landmark, and more like stepping into a space designed to make you pause. Geometry, mystery, and silence – it really is all there.

Castel del Monte. Geometry, Mystery, and Silence

Italian Dinner at Its Finest

During our trip to Italy last year, my brother, his baby daughter, and I visited the stunning town of Matera. It was already November, and while the air had a bit of a chill, the weather was still wonderfully bright. At that time of year, despite Matera being a top tourist destination, the crowds had thinned out, leaving us to enjoy the town at a leisurely pace. We were able to sit on the terrace of a small restaurant, without needing a reservation, and take in the breathtaking view of the upper part of old Matera.

For the little one, we ordered a simple dish of gnocchi in a rich tomato sauce, but with such a beautiful view ahead of us and plenty of time on our hands, we decided to indulge in the full Italian dining experience that the restaurant offered. It was the perfect setting to enjoy a leisurely, traditional Italian meal, savouring each course at our own pace.

For most people, Italian cuisine is synonymous with pizza, various types of pasta, and of course, fresh olive oil as a staple accompaniment. However, a true Italian meal, especially in a more refined setting, is a much more elaborate experience, traditionally served in several courses. Our meal followed a classic Italian structure, beginning with antipasti, followed by two main courses, and finishing with dessert. What is important, we enjoyed this meal as a late lunch, but in Italy, this type of multi-course meal is typically served as an evening dinner.

So, what does a traditional Italian meal look like, and what was on our plates?

At the start of the meal, it’s common for freshly baked bread to be served, often accompanied by a bowl of extra virgin olive oil for dipping. Throughout the meal, wine plays a central role. In many restaurants, you can choose between bottled wines, often from renowned regional vineyards, or opt for the local vino della casa (house wine), which is usually served in carafes. House wines, whether red or white, are often simpler but still of good quality. Sparkling or still water is also commonly served.

Antipasto (Starter). The meal often begins with antipasti, which are small, flavourful appetisers meant to stimulate the appetite. These may include bruschetta, cured meats like prosciutto, a variety of cheeses, marinated olives, grilled vegetables, or carpaccio – thinly sliced raw meat (typically beef) or sometimes fish, dressed with olive oil and lemon. The antipasto serves as an introduction to the meal and sets the tone for what is to come.

Primo piatto (First Course), This course is typically based on carbohydrates and may include pasta, risotto, gnocchi, or sometimes soup. Pasta is a staple of Italian cuisine, made from wheat and water (or eggs in some varieties), and comes in countless shapes and sizes, from the well-known spaghetti to more regional variations. Risotto is a creamy dish made from short-grain rice, which is cooked slowly by adding broth little by little, resulting in a rich texture. Gnocchi, on the other hand, are soft dumplings made from potatoes, flour, and sometimes eggs, offering a slightly different texture from pasta but often served with similar sauces. The primo is hearty and filling, but it’s just the beginning of the main part of the meal.

Secondo piatto (Main Course). The secondo is the main course, usually focused on meat or fish. Unlike the primo, it is typically served without starchy additions, like pasta or rice. Common choices include roasted meats, grilled fish, or stews. If you’re dining in Italy, be prepared for the possibility of receiving just the meat with its sauce, like guanciale di manzo (beef cheeks), which are often served in a rich, slow-cooked sauce or meat accompanied by vegetables like in pollo a la Romana (Roman style chicken), where peppers, tomatoes, and onions are slow-cooked with the chicken, creating a rich, flavourful sauce that accompanies the dish. Don’t expect pasta or potatoes on the side, as you’ve likely already had your primo piatto earlier. The secondo is meant to stand on its own, with the focus squarely on the protein and its accompanying sauce.

Contorno (Side Dishes). Side dishes, or contorni, often accompany the secondo. These are usually simple vegetable preparations, such as roasted potatoes, grilled zucchini, or a fresh salad. While not always necessary, contorni add balance to the meal and offer a lighter contrast to the richness of the main course. Contorni in Italy can (though not always) be served in quite generous portions. So before ordering additional vegetables in a restaurant, it’s wise to ask the waiter about the portion size, as you might find yourself with more on a plate than you can comfortably eat on your own.

No Italian meal is complete without a dolce, or dessert. This could be a classic like tiramisu, a silky panna cotta, or light, refreshing fruits, depending on the region and the occasion. Italian desserts are often rich in flavour but not too heavy, providing the perfect sweet finish to a meal. In one of the traditional Italian homes where I was a guest, dessert was a delightful mix of sweets, balanced with fresh fruits and nuts. After the dolce, Italians typically enjoy an espresso (caffè), a strong, concentrated coffee served in a small cup. Coffee is usually the last item served, although some may choose a digestivo such as grappa, limoncello, or amaro to help with digestion.

I traditionally ended the meal with a coffee, though not an espresso. Keeping in mind that Italians usually find it odd when someone orders a milk-based coffee, like cappuccino or caffè latte, with lunch or dinner, I chose an americano instead – a more diluted option, as espresso is a bit too strong for my taste. Interestingly, the name americano is tied to the fact that American soldiers during World War II would dilute their espresso with hot water to make it more like the coffee they were used to back home.

Italian Dinner at Its Finest

Bona Sforza

Bari is a city that is heard of in Poland from early childhood history lessons. In this city, one of the most influential queens in Polish history, Bona Sforza, was living before and after her stay in Poland. She became the Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania through her marriage to Sigismund I of Poland. It was only while staying with an Italian family near Bari that I learned that Bona Sforza was a significant figure in Bari, as well. Furthermore, that her modest sarcophagus is placed on the altar in the Basilica of Saint Nicholas in Bari.

Born 1494, in Milan, Italy, she was the daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, and Isabella of Naples. Bona’s family, the Sforzas, were one of the leading families in Italy. Her childhood was affected by the political turmoil involving her family. The Sforza family’s power in Milan was contested. Her father died under mysterious circumstances when Bona was just a child. Soon after her father’s death, Duchess Isabella moved with her daughters to Bari. Bona’s Renaissance education covered languages, arts, and an introduction to politics, equipping her with linguistic proficiency and a foundational understanding of governance.

Isabella sought to arrange a favorable marriage for Bona to regain political influence and her former possessions. Despite initial unsuccessful attempts due to Isabella’s unfavorable political position, with the support of the Habsburgs, she eventually succeeded in arranging Bona’s marriage to the widowed Polish King Sigismund I.

In 1518, Bona Sforza married King Sigismund I of Poland, becoming Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania.

Her role as the Queen of Poland was marked by significant administrative reforms, among which the establishment of a permanent tax system was a major achievement. Although it must be said that she imposed and enforced these taxes with a firm hand. Prior to her influence, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth relied on irregular and often arbitrary taxation methods that were not only inefficient but also prone to exacerbating tensions between the monarchy and the nobility. By introducing a more systematic and regularized tax system, she brought about greater fiscal stability and predictability, which was essential for the effective governance and financial planning of the state. In addition to these fiscal reforms, Bona Sforza made concerted efforts to reduce the influence of the nobility by curbing their traditional privileges and powers, thereby centralizing authority under the monarchy.

Beyond her domestic reforms, Bona Sforza was deeply engaged in the foreign affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian realm. She openly opposed the growing influence of the Habsburgs in Central Europe and sought to counterbalance it through alliances with France and the Ottoman Empire. Her foreign policy was closely tied to her dynastic interests, as she worked to secure titles, lands and advantageous marriages for her children. Although some of her efforts were ultimately frustrated, she remained a shrewd political operator, whose ambitions extended well beyond the borders of her adopted country.

Bona Sforza played a notable role in the development of Renaissance culture in Poland. Hailing from Italy, she brought with her the refined tastes of the Italian courts and introduced them to the Polish royal household. She actively patronised artists, architects and craftsmen, many of whom she brought from her native land, leaving a lasting mark on the visual and architectural landscape of the kingdom. Under her influence, Wawel Castle was transformed with elegant arcaded courtyards in the Italian style. Beyond architecture, she encouraged literary and educational pursuits, helping to shape a more sophisticated and cosmopolitan court culture.

She also had a considerable impact on Polish agriculture and cuisine. She introduced important agricultural reforms, including new crops and farming techniques. While the idea that she single-handedly brought vegetables to Poland is somewhat exaggerated, she did play a significant role in promoting their wider use at the royal court and among the nobility. As a noblewoman from Italy – where Renaissance culinary culture was particularly rich and diverse – she brought with her knowledge of produce that was not commonly used in Poland at the time. Her influence contributed to a gradual shift in dietary habits, particularly among the upper classes.

Bona Sforza, towards the end of King Sigismund I’s reign and after his death in 1548, faced increasing animosity from the Polish nobility due to her strong political influence and centralizing reforms. Her relationship with her son, Sigismund II Augustus, became fraught with tension, as well. After he ascended to the throne, their differing views on state affairs exacerbated the strain in their relationship. A major source of conflict was also her son’s marriage to Barbara Radziwiłł from one of the most influential Polish-Lithuanian noble families. Bona viewed it as politically damaging and personally threatening, as it would strengthen his wife’s family influence at court while diminishing her own.

Consequently, for long eight years she moved with her daughters to Brodnica in Mazovia Poland. Finally she made the decision to leave Poland and return to Italy to Bari, marking the end of her direct involvement in Polish politics. Bona’s life came to an abrupt and mysterious end in 1557.

And here yet another fact from her life comes to light. Following her marriage to Sigismund I the Old in 1518, Bona was formally granted hereditary fiefs in southern Italy by Emperor Charles V of the Habsburg dynasty. These included the Duchy of Bari, the Principality of Rossano, as well as Modugno and Bitonto. These were highly lucrative estates situated in the Kingdom of Naples. Bona derived substantial income from them. She maintained financial independence and even loaned money to the Polish royal treasury. She was one of the wealthiest individuals in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and she handled her finances with remarkable diligence and care. For decades, even while residing in Poland, she administered her southern Italian fiefs through a network of trusted agents and correspondence. From the royal court in Kraków, she managed financial affairs, collected revenues, and oversaw local governance in the Duchy of Bari. This transregional management made her one of the most financially independent monarchs in Europe at the time.

When she eventually returned to Bari in 1556, she resumed direct rule and implemented a series of administrative and economic reforms. She strengthened tax collection, invested in urban infrastructure, and reasserted political control over her domains. Her presence in Bari reestablished the court as a center of local authority and Renaissance patronage — yet also drew the attention and hostility of the Spanish crown, particularly Philip II (son of Charles V), under whose rule the Kingdom of Naples now fell.

Bona died under suspicious circumstances. One of the historical hypotheses that has not been conclusively confirmed is the theory that she was poisoned by her secretary, Gian Lorenzo Pappacoda, who allegedly acted under orders from the Spanish crown. A forged will emerged, one that transferred her Italian holdings not to her son, as she had intended, but instead to Philip II. Poland’s diplomatic protests and claims were entirely ignored by the Spanish authorities.

She was buried in the Basilica of Saint Nicholas in Bari.

Bona Sforza