The Lateran Apostles and Their Attributes

2026 By justmovingaround in Sacred Grounds, VATICAN Tags: apostles, basilica, Lateran, Rome, Vatican

In the nave of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran in Rome stands one of the most impressive sculptural programs of the Roman Baroque: a monumental series of statues representing the Apostles. Created in the early eighteenth century by some of the leading sculptors working in Rome, each figure is accompanied by a distinctive attribute that refers either to the apostle’s life or to the manner of his martyrdom. This post looks at these statues one by one, focusing on the symbols that allow us to recognize them.

The Archbasilica of the Most Holy Saviour and Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist in the Lateran, commonly known as Saint John Lateran, is the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome and the official ecclesiastical seat of the Pope as Bishop of Rome. Although it stands outside the territory of Vatican City, the Basilica is part of the extraterritorial properties of the Holy See, enjoying a special status similar to that of the Vatican itself.

Founded in the early fourth century by Emperor Constantine, it is the oldest public church in Rome (although heavily reconstructed over the years) and holds the title of the mother and head of all churches in the city and in the world, which underlines its unique importance within the Catholic Church. It is worth noting that, unlike the Pantheon – which was only later converted into a church – the Lateran Basilica is the oldest building in Rome originally constructed as a Christian place of worship.

I have visited the Basilica several times and even shared a post about it here some time ago; however, after my most recent visit I never updated it, especially since I now have a larger collection of detailed photographs from its interior. Before I do so, I would like to highlight one of its more intriguing details, along with a brief commentary.

One of the most striking elements of the interior of the Archbasilica is the monumental cycle of statues representing the Apostles placed along the central nave. The architectural structure of the nave was created in the mid-seventeenth century during the major reconstruction of the basilica ordered by Pope Innocent X and carried out by the architect Francesco Borromini. As part of his redesign, Borromini created a series of large niches in the massive piers of the nave. These niches were clearly intended to hold monumental statues, but for several decades they remained empty. It was only in the early eighteenth century that the sculptural program was finally realized. During the pontificate of Pope Clement XI, the project was entrusted to the architect Carlo Fontana, a former collaborator of Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Fontana invited a group of the most prominent sculptors working in Rome at the time, and each artist was commissioned to create one of the apostolic figures. The sculptures, carved in white marble and standing more than four metres high, occupy the monumental niches between the nave piers. Each niche is framed by pairs of coloured marble columns.

Lateran Archbasilica Rome | Archibasilique du Latran Rome | Lateranbasilika Rom | Archibasílica de Letrán Roma | Arcybazylika na Lateranie Rzym | Arcibasilica Lateranense Roma | Латеранская архибазилика Рим | ラテラノ大聖堂ローマ | 라테라노 대성전 로마 | 罗马拉特朗大殿

The program represents the Twelve Apostles, the closest followers of Christ and the traditional foundations of the Christian Church. However, the series includes a small but significant modification. Instead of Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Christ, the cycle features Saint Paul. Although Paul was not one of the original Twelve, Christian tradition has long regarded him as one of the greatest apostles because of his missionary work and theological writings. For this reason he is often paired with Saint Peter as one of the principal apostles of the Church. The twelve figures represented in the Lateran basilica are therefore: Peter, Paul, Andrew, James the Greater, John the Evangelist, Thomas, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, James the Less, Simon, and Jude Thaddeus.

An important element of this sculptural program is the use of attributes, the symbolic objects held by each apostle. In Christian art these objects function as visual identifiers, allowing viewers to recognize individual saints even without reading the inscriptions on the bases of the statues. The attributes usually refer either to the manner of the apostle’s martyrdom or to his role in the early Church and Christian tradition.

For example, Saint Peter holds the keys symbolizing the authority entrusted to him by Christ, Saint Paul carries a sword referring to his execution in Rome and to the power of his preaching, and Saint John is accompanied by an eagle representing the theological depth of his Gospel. Other apostles are identified through instruments associated with their deaths, such as the saw of Saint Simon, the club of Saint James the Less, or the knife of Saint Bartholomew.

Apostles in the Lateran Archbasilica in Rome | Apôtres dans l’archibasilique du Latran à Rome | Apostel in der Lateranbasilika in Rom | Apóstoles en la Archibasílica de Letrán en Roma | Apostołowie w arcybazylice laterańskiej w Rzymie | Apostoli nell’Arcibasilica Lateranense a Roma | Апостолы в Латеранской архибазилике в Риме | ローマのラテラノ大聖堂の使徒たち | 로마 라테라노 대성전의 사도들 | 罗马拉特朗大殿中的使徒们

Saint Peter – the Key

Saint Peter was one of the closest disciples of Jesus and is traditionally regarded as the leader of the Apostles. Originally named Simon, he was a fisherman from Galilee before being called by Christ to become one of his first followers. According to the Gospels, Jesus gave him the name Peter (from the Greek petros, meaning rock), symbolizing the foundational role he would play in the Christian community.

After the death and resurrection of Christ, Peter became one of the central figures in the early Church and is traditionally considered the first bishop of Rome, and therefore the first pope (although the latter title formally appeared ages later). According to early Christian sources, he was executed in Rome during the persecution of Christians under Emperor Nero around AD 64. Tradition holds that he was crucified upside down, because he did not consider himself worthy to die in the same way as Christ.

Peter’s main attribute in Christian art is the key, or more often a pair of keys. The symbol comes from the Gospel of Matthew, where Christ tells him: I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven. In many representations the two keys – often shown as gold and silver – are interpreted as symbols of authority over heaven and earth, or of spiritual and temporal power.

Saint Matthew – the Book

Saint Matthew, also known as Levi, was originally a tax collector before becoming one of the twelve apostles. Matthew left his profession immediately when Jesus called him to follow him. Christian tradition attributes to him the authorship of the Gospel of Matthew, which explains why he is frequently represented with a book or scroll.

After the death of Christ, Matthew is believed to have travelled widely as a missionary. Ancient sources place his preaching in regions such as Ethiopia, Persia, or Syria. Tradition holds that he eventually died as a martyr, although the exact circumstances of his death are uncertain.

Saint Jude Thaddeus – the Spear

Saint Jude Thaddeus remains one of the lesser-known figures, partly due to the similarity of his name to Judas Iscariot. He is traditionally identified as a close relative of Jesus and is regarded in Christian tradition as a devoted and steadfast preacher of the Gospel, most likely active in the regions of the Near East. Over time, he came to be especially venerated as the patron saint of lost causes and desperate situations.

In art, he is most often depicted holding a spear, which refers to the manner of his martyrdom. According to tradition, he was killed while preaching, and the weapon became his identifying attribute in iconography.

Saint Andrew – the Cross

Saint Andrew was the brother of Saint Peter and one of the first disciples called by Jesus. Like his brother, he had been a fisherman from Galilee before becoming a follower of Christ. Andrew was originally a disciple of John the Baptist and was among the earliest to recognize Jesus as the Messiah.

After the Resurrection, Christian tradition describes Andrew as a missionary who travelled widely across the eastern Mediterranean world. Various early sources associate his preaching with regions around the Black Sea, Asia Minor and Greece. He is believed to have been martyred in the Greek city of Patras. He was crucified on a cross in the shape of the letter X, now known as the Cross of Saint Andrew. Because he considered himself unworthy to die in the same manner as Christ, the cross was said to have been positioned differently from the traditional form.

Over time, this distinctive cross shape began to function beyond its purely religious context and entered broader European symbolism – appearing in heraldry, markings, and simple graphic signs, where its form was clear and easily recognisable. The X naturally came to be associated with the crossing of lines and with points of potential conflict or danger. This is why, in the 19th century, with the expansion of the railways, it was adopted as a warning sign at level crossings, indicating the point where a road intersects with railway tracks.

Saint Thomas – the Raised Finger

Saint Thomas is most widely known from the Gospel of John, where he initially doubts the resurrection of Christ. When the other disciples tell him that Jesus has risen, Thomas famously declares that he will not believe unless he can see and touch the wounds of the crucifixion. According to the Gospel narrative, Christ later appears to him and invites him to do exactly that. Later Christian tradition describes Thomas as a missionary who travelled far beyond the Roman world, preaching as far as Persia and India. The ancient Christian communities of southern India still maintain a strong tradition linking their origins to his mission.

The raised pointing finger refers directly to the Gospel episode in which Thomas is invited to place his finger in Christ’s wounds. In art this gesture has come to symbolize both his initial doubt and the moment of recognition and faith that followed.

Saint Paul – the Book and the Sword

Saint Paul was not one of the original Twelve Apostles, but he became one of the most influential figures in early Christianity. Born in Tarsus and originally known as Saul, he was a Pharisee who initially persecuted early Christians. His life changed dramatically after a visionary encounter with Christ on the road to Damascus, after which he became one of the most active missionaries of the early Church. Paul travelled extensively through Asia Minor, Greece and eventually Rome, founding Christian communities and writing letters that would later become a central part of the New Testament.

In artistic representations Paul is almost always shown with two attributes: a book and a sword. The book refers to his epistles – such as the Letters to the Romans, Corinthians and Galatians – which shaped Christian theology and form a major portion of the New Testament. The sword refers to the manner of his martyrdom. According to early Christian tradition, Paul was executed in Rome during the persecution under Emperor Nero around AD 67. As a Roman citizen, he was not crucified but beheaded with a sword. The sword is sometimes understood not only as the instrument of his death, but also as a symbol of the sword of the Word, reflecting the force and clarity of his teaching.

Saint Philip – the Cross

Saint Philip originally came from Bethsaida in Galilee, the same town as Peter and Andrew. According to the Gospel of John, he was among the early followers of Jesus and was the one who introduced Nathanael (traditionally identified with Bartholomew) to Christ. After the Resurrection, Christian tradition describes Philip as a missionary who preached in Asia Minor. Ancient sources associate his later ministry particularly with the city of Hierapolis in present-day Turkey.

The precise details of his death vary in different early accounts, but many traditions describe him as having been crucified. For this reason, Philip is commonly represented in Christian art holding a cross. In many images the cross appears as a tall staff-like cross, which distinguishes it from the smaller crosses used in other contexts.

Saint James the Greater – the Pilgrim’s Staff

Saint James the Greater was the son of Zebedee, as well as the brother of Saint John the Evangelist. Together with Peter and John he belonged to the inner circle of disciples, who witnessed some of the most significant events in the life of Christ. After the Resurrection, Christian tradition describes James as preaching the Gospel in various regions before eventually returning to Jerusalem. According to the Acts of the Apostles, he became the first of the apostles to suffer martyrdom. He was executed by the sword in Jerusalem on the order of King Herod Agrippa I.

In Christian art James the Greater is frequently depicted as a pilgrim, holding a staff. The pilgrim’s staff refers to the medieval tradition that his relics were brought to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, which later became one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in the Christian world. The staff therefore symbolizes both pilgrimage and the widespread devotion associated with Saint James.

Saint Bartholomew – the Knife and the Flayed Skin

Saint Bartholomew is commonly identified with Nathanael mentioned in the Gospel of John. According to early Christian tradition, he preached the Gospel in several eastern regions, including Mesopotamia and Armenia. Ancient sources describe his missionary work as bringing Christianity to areas far beyond the Roman world. His ministry eventually led to persecution. According to the most widely accepted tradition, Bartholomew was martyred in Armenia, where he was flayed alive and then executed.

For this reason, his principal attribute in Christian iconography is a knife, the instrument associated with his martyrdom. In many works of art he is also shown holding his own flayed skin.

Saint Simon – the Saw

Saint Simon, often called Simon the Zealot, travelled as a missionary after the Resurrection of Christ, preaching in regions of the Middle East and Persia. Several early sources describe him working together with the apostle Jude Thaddeus in spreading the Christian faith. Simon is believed to have died as a martyr during these missionary journeys. One common tradition states that he was killed with a saw, which became the symbol associated with him in Christian art. For this reason, Saint Simon is typically depicted holding a saw.

Saint James the Less – the Club

Saint James the Less is traditionally identified as the son of Alphaeus. Early Christian sources describe him as an important leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem and a central figure in the earliest years of the Church. He is often also associated with James the Just, who played a leading role in the Jerusalem church after the Resurrection of Christ. James was eventually persecuted for his faith in Jerusalem. One account describes him being thrown from the pinnacle of the Temple and then killed by blows from a club or fuller’s bat. For this reason, Saint James the Less is commonly depicted holding a club.

Saint John the Evangelist – the Eagle

Saint John the Evangelist was the brother of Saint James the Greater. Together with Peter and James he belonged to the inner circle of disciples who witnessed some of the most significant moments in the life of Chris. Christian tradition attributes to him the authorship of the Gospel of John, as well as the three Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation. Unlike most of the apostles, John is believed to have died a natural death, probably in Ephesus at the end of the first century.

His principal attribute in Christian art is the eagle. The symbol originates from the biblical visions of the four living creatures described in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation. In Christian tradition these four creatures became associated with the four evangelists. The eagle was assigned to John because his Gospel rises to the highest theological perspective, contemplating the divine nature of Christ in a way that early Christian writers compared to an eagle soaring high above the earth. The eagle thus not only symbolises the theological depth of his writing, but also the ability to contemplate divine realities beyond the material world.

The series of apostles in the Lateran Basilica is not only a decorative programme, but also a clear and consistent visual system, in which each figure can be identified through its attribute. These symbols, whether simple or more elaborate, refer to well-established traditions and help place each apostle within a broader historical and religious context

St Peter’s Basi lica

Vatican Museums

Holy See

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The Lateran Apostles and Their Attributes

Stone, Gold and the Age of Discoveries. Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon

2026 By justmovingaround in PORTUGAL, Sacred Grounds Tags: Jerónimos Monastery, Lisbon, manueline, Portugal

The Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon is one of the most remarkable monuments of the Portuguese Age of Discoveries. From the monumental stone church visible from the Tagus to the richly gilded chapels inside, the complex reflects both the architectural ambition and the immense wealth of Portugal’s maritime empire.

Today I would like to return to a place I visited quite a long time ago – more than ten years ago – but which has stayed in my memory ever since. At the time, however, I made a rather unfortunate mistake. While travelling to Portugal, I somehow managed to leave my proper camera at home. Instead, I had to rely entirely on the camera in my mobile phone – and this was long before mobile photography reached the level we take for granted today. The device I had with me simply could not capture much detail, and the photographs it produced were limited in both resolution and quality. For years I assumed that these images would remain nothing more than vague digital memories buried somewhere in an old archive.

Recently, however, I decided to try a small experiment. With the help of artificial intelligence, I uploaded those old files and asked the system to enhance them – to recover as much detail as possible and improve their resolution. To my surprise, the results turned out far better than I had expected. I managed to retrieve a handful of usable photographs taken in this place. They are still only fragments of what I saw back then, but they provide just enough of a visual anchor to revisit this impressive structure.

Interior of the main church of the Jerónimos Monastery, front view.

The Jerónimos Monastery (Mosteiro dos Jerónimos) in Lisbon is one of the most important historical monuments in Portugal and one of the places most closely associated with the country’s past. The complex is located in the Belém district, on the banks of the Tagus River, in an area deeply connected with the Portuguese Age of Discoveries. Construction began at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries on the initiative of King Manuel I, and today the monument is included on the UNESCO World Heritage List (since 1983).

The monastery stands very close to the Tagus River and forms part of the characteristic historical landscape of Belém. When standing by the riverbank near the Belém Tower and the Padrão dos Descobrimentos – the Monument to the Discoveries – and turning one’s back to the river, the long and massive silhouette of the monastery appears in front of you. The building stretches horizontally across the space of Belém and immediately dominates the view. When standing the other way around – with your back to the monastery and facing the river – you see the two other great symbols of Portugal’s maritime past: the Monument to the Discoveries and the Belém Tower. Together with the monastery they form a distinctive historical ensemble that defines this part of Lisbon.

Jerónimos Monastery | Mosteiro dos Jerónimos | Hieronymitenkloster | Monasterio de los Jerónimos | Monastère des Hiéronymites | 热罗尼莫斯修道院 | 제로니무스 수도원 | ジェロニモス修道院 | Klasztor Hieronimitów

Belém Tower, Lisbon | Torre de Belém, Lisboa | Belém-Turm, Lissabon | Torre de Belém, Lisboa | Tour de Belém, Lisbonne | 贝伦塔，里斯本 | 벨렝 탑, 리스본 | ベレンの塔、リスボン | Wieża Belém, Lizbona

Monument to the Discoveries, Lisbon | Padrão dos Descobrimentos, Lisboa | Denkmal der Entdeckungen, Lissabon | Monumento a los Descubrimientos, Lisboa | Monument des Découvertes, Lisbonne | 大发现纪念碑，里斯本 | 발견기념비, 리스본 | 発見のモニュメント、リスボン | Pomnik Odkrywców, Lizbona

Three monuments of Lisbon’s Belém district: the Jerónimos Monastery, Belém Tower and the Padrão dos Descobrimentos (Monument to the Discoveries).

What can be seen from the river, impressive as it already is, actually represents only a part of the entire monastery complex. The long monumental structure visible from the direction of the Tagus is primarily the Church of Santa Maria de Belém, the central church of the Jerónimos Monastery and the most architecturally striking element of the ensemble. Behind it, however, extends a much larger monastic complex that is not immediately visible from the waterfront. There are the vast cloisters, arranged around a large square courtyard and famous for their richly carved Manueline arcades, which once formed the heart of monastic life. Around them were located the functional spaces of the monastery, including the chapter house, where the monks held their meetings, and the refectory, the communal dining hall. After the dissolution of the religious orders in the nineteenth century, parts of these former monastic buildings were repurposed, and today they house institutions such as the Maritime Museum and the National Archaeological Museum. What appears from the river to be a single monumental church is therefore only the visible façade of a much larger historical complex extending further inland through Belém.

The foundation of the monastery was directly connected with Portugal’s maritime expansion. Previously a small church stood on this site, where, according to tradition, Vasco da Gama prayed before departing for his voyage to India in 1497. King Manuel I decided to erect a monumental monastery here that would reflect the power of Portugal and the significance of its oceanic discoveries. The construction was financed partly through a tax on the spice trade arriving in Portugal from Asia, which further underlined the close connection between the building and the country’s global maritime network.

The monastery was entrusted to the Order of Saint Jerome, whose monks played a particular symbolic role during the Age of Discoveries. Among their responsibilities was praying for the king and for Portuguese sailors embarking on long and dangerous ocean voyages. In this way the monastery became not only an important religious centre, but also a place that symbolically accompanied Portugal’s maritime expansion.

Architecturally, the Jerónimos Monastery represents one of the finest examples of the Manueline style, a uniquely Portuguese form of late Gothic architecture. The style is characterised by extraordinarily rich decorative carving that blends plant motifs with maritime imagery and symbols of royal power. Among the decorative details one can recognise carved ropes, shells, exotic vegetation and symbols connected with the Age of Discoveries. Slender, intricately sculpted columns as well as monumental portals and cloisters together create one of the most recognisable architectural ensembles in Portugal.

Interior and the ceilings.

Inside the monastery church – the central part of the complex – one can also find the tombs of important figures in Portuguese history. Among them is Vasco da Gama, one of the most famous explorers of the Age of Discovery. The church also contains the tombs of Portuguese monarchs associated with the Aviz dynasty, further emphasising the symbolic importance of the site as a monument to Portugal’s royal power and maritime achievements.

Although the church itself is a monumental structure of pale carved stone, some of the later chapels and altars create a striking contrast – richly decorated and literally dripping with gold, much like many other churches across Portugal where gilded baroque altarpieces became a defining element of the interior. This lavish decoration was largely the result of the immense wealth that flowed into Portugal during the centuries of maritime expansion and overseas conquest, when the country became one of the richest powers in Europe. One of the chapels I managed to photograph – although capturing all that shimmering gold without proper photographic equipment proved rather difficult – is a good example of such a space, overflowing with gilded ornamentation and centred around a sculpture of Christ lying in an open coffin.

A chapel in gold

This representation belongs to a long-standing Catholic devotional tradition known as the Dead Christ (often called Cristo Morto or Senhor Morto in Iberian countries). The sculpture depicts Christ after the Crucifixion and before the Resurrection, lying in a sarcophagus or open tomb and inviting contemplation of the Passion. In Portugal such figures are often placed in richly decorated side chapels and are sometimes associated with the rituals of Holy Week, when the moment between death and resurrection is symbolically commemorated.

The history of the monastery changed in the 19th century, when Portugal introduced the suppression of religious orders as part of liberal reforms aimed at reducing the political and economic influence of the Church. In 1834 many religious orders were dissolved and their monasteries and properties were confiscated by the state. As a result, the Jerónimos Monastery ceased to function as a monastic institution. The complex itself, however, did not lose its importance. Over time its spaces began to be used for museum and representative purposes, and today the monastery remains one of Lisbon’s most important historical landmarks.

Manueline-style entrance, Jerónimos Monastery | Entrada em estilo manuelino, Mosteiro dos Jerónimos | Eingang im manuelinischen Stil, Hieronymitenkloster | Entrada de estilo manuelino, Monasterio de los Jerónimos | Entrée de style manuélin, Monastère des Hiéronymites | 曼努埃尔风格入口，热罗尼莫斯修道院 | 마누엘 양식 입구, 제로니무스 수도원 | マヌエル様式の入口、ジェロニモス修道院 | Wejście w stylu manuelińskim, klasztor Hieronimitów

Side entrance to the church of the Jerónimos Monastery, decorated in the Manueline style, illuminated by full daylight.

As far as I remember, we actually had very little time to visit the site. In practice we managed to see only the church itself, and even that rather quickly. When planning our time in Lisbon, we essentially just passed through the church and skipped the rest of the monastery complex entirely. Shortly afterwards, however, we visited another convent – today the site of the Azulejos Museum – which surprised us just as much, with a chapel so richly gilded that the amount of gold decoration seemed almost unbelievable.

Even so, if I could go back in time – knowing what I know today and remembering the other monasteries we later visited in Portugal – I would certainly try to set aside at least an extra hour or two to explore the entire Jerónimos complex properly. The cloisters, the monastic spaces and the museums located there today would almost certainly have been well worth that additional time.

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Stone, Gold and the Age of Discoveries. Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon

Hagia Sophia History. From Byzantine Glory to Modern Day

2025 By justmovingaround in History, ISTANBUL, Sacred Grounds Tags: Byzantine, church, Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, mosque

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul has stood for nearly fifteen centuries – a masterpiece of Late Antique architecture, shaped by the empires, faiths, and upheavals that swept across its walls. Once the greatest cathedral of the Eastern Christian world, it became an imperial mosque, later a museum, and today once again serves as a place of Muslim worship. In this post, I explore the Hagia Sophia history and share my impressions from visiting it – illustrated with a rich selection of photographs.

Today I want to introduce you to one of the most monumental buildings of Ancient Europe – the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. I had always thought of stepping inside and seeing it with my own eyes. When I finally managed to do so last year, I can’t say I was either surprised or disappointed, as I was already well-acquainted with the history of this temple. Yet, with the splendour of other sacred buildings – Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican – that I have had the chance to admire in recent years, and with the Blue Mosque standing right next to the Hagia Sophia, I couldn’t help but feel a certain disappointment at the way its interior looks today.

Let us then look into its history. Let us try to answer the question of what made this temple – the most illustrious and most exquisitely decorated Christian building of its time – although still standing in an almost intact mass, no longer inspire awe with its interior décor as it once did. Let us trace the events that, over the centuries, have shaped its present appearance.

The Beginnings

The Hagia Sophia, meaning Holy Wisdom, is actually the third temple to stand on this site. The first Basilica of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople was built by Emperor Constantius II in AD 360 – a church of the Eastern (Byzantine) rite, still within the single, undivided universal Church, though with liturgy in Greek and traditions distinct from those in the West. It was destroyed by fire in AD 404 during riots sparked by the exile of Patriarch John Chrysostom. The second church, larger and more magnificent, was built by Emperor Theodosius II in AD 415 – also in the Eastern rite, still formally united with the Western Church, yet with growing liturgical and theological differences. This one too was destroyed – in AD 532, during the Nika Revolt that shook the city. The third and most famous Hagia Sophia, whose essential form has survived to this day, was built by Emperor Justinian I. Completed in AD 537, it served as the cathedral of the Eastern rite and the principal church of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. It was a true masterpiece of Late Antique architecture – designed by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, with a monumental dome, gilded mosaics, and marble cladding.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul | Ayasofya, İstanbul | Sainte-Sophie, Istanbul | Santa Sofía, Estambul | Айя-София, Стамбул | Hagia Sophia, Stambuł | 伊斯坦布尔圣索菲亚大教堂 | イスタンブールのアヤソフィア | 이스탄불의 아야 소피아

Very little written evidence has survived describing what the Hagia Sophia once looked like. Our modern vision is based on fragments of sources from the 6th to the 12th century, chiefly the works of Procopius of Caesarea, Paulus Silentiarius, and Bishop Anthony of Novgorod. Upon crossing the threshold of the Hagia Sophia, one would enter a space that seemed not of this world. The dome appeared to float in the air, suspended by an invisible chain of light, whose glow reflected off thousands of golden tesserae. Rays streaming through rows of windows spilled into the interior, mingling with the glow of lamps and candles. The walls and floors were clad in marbles of green, purple, white, and black, brought from the farthest provinces of the empire – from Thessaly, Egypt, and Phrygia. The great altar gleamed with gold, silver, and precious stones. Above it rose a ciborium, supported by columns of green stone adorned with gilded capitals. In the apse, high above the altar, shone a mosaic of the Mother of God with the Child, and below it rows of angels and saints. Along the naves and galleries stretched richly decorated balustrades, and everywhere the eye turned, the golden backgrounds of mosaics shimmered.

Though it has withstood the centuries, the Hagia Sophia suffered serious damage from earthquakes on several occasions – notably in AD 558, 989, and 1346, when parts of its dome collapsed and had to be rebuilt. Yet the greatest blow came not from nature but from human hands – during the Fourth Crusade in AD 1204, and, importantly, at the hands of Christians who were meant to defend the faith, yet ended up plundering the most illustrious Christian building of the age. It should be remembered, however, that since the Great Schism of AD 1054, the temple had represented the Eastern rite, and was thus an Orthodox cathedral, not a Latin (Western Church) one.

The IVth Crusade

At that time, the Angelos dynasty ruled Byzantium. In AD 1195, Emperor Isaac II Angelos was deposed and blinded by his own brother, Alexios III, who seized the throne. Isaac’s son, Alexios IV, fled to the West in search of help. In AD 1202, he reached the Crusaders, who were preparing an expedition to Egypt but lacked the funds to pay for the Venetian fleet. Alexios IV offered them an extraordinary bargain: if they helped him reclaim the throne, he would pay them a vast sum, provide supplies, and promised to unite the Eastern Church with Rome.

The Crusaders, financially bound by their contract with the Venetians, agreed. In AD 1203, they captured Constantinople and placed Isaac II and Alexios IV on the throne. The promised funds, however, proved impossible to raise without plunder and drastic taxation. In January AD 1204, a revolt broke out in the city. Alexios IV was overthrown and killed, and power passed to Alexios V Mourtzouphlos. In April AD 1204, the Crusaders attacked and seized the city once again – this time for themselves.

During the three-day sack, palaces, monasteries, and churches – including the Hagia Sophia – were plundered. Altars of marble and gold were dismantled, mosaics were smashed or prised apart for their golden tiles, and the church’s interior became a scene of profanation – chroniclers speak of horses being led inside and of feasts held in the sanctuary.

Among the priceless relics and treasures looted in AD 1204 was the Crown of Thorns, formerly kept in the imperial chapel of St Mary of the Pharos within the Great Palace. It fell into the hands of the Venetians, probably as part of the Crusaders’ debt repayment to the Republic. It was later purchased by King Louis IX of France, who brought it to Paris. To house it, the Sainte-Chapelle – a masterpiece of Rayonnant Gothic – was built between AD 1242 and 1248. The relic later passed to Notre-Dame Cathedral.

Decline

After the capture of Constantinople in AD 1204, the participants of the Fourth Crusade established the Latin Empire on its ruins, which lasted until AD 1261. Count Baldwin IX of Flanders was placed on the imperial throne and crowned in the Hagia Sophia. The church, until then the cathedral of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Eastern rite, was turned into a Latin cathedral, with the liturgy conducted in Latin according to the Western rite. The Orthodox patriarch was exiled and replaced by a Latin patriarch. The Latin Empire controlled only part of the former Byzantine territory, its power relying largely on Venetian support. Economically and militarily, the state was weak.

In AD 1261, the Byzantines of the Palaiologos dynasty recaptured the city, restoring the Eastern rite. Yet the empire they recovered was far smaller than in its glory days, holding mainly Constantinople, the Sea of Marmara region, parts of Thrace, and fragments of Greece. Economically devastated after the Latin occupation, its trade largely taken over by Venetians and Genoese, the empire was too poor and too weak to fully restore the Hagia Sophia. The church was repaired only provisionally, and the lost decorations and relics were never returned.

Politically, Byzantium was forced to navigate between stronger neighbours – the Latin states, Serbia, Bulgaria, and later the rising power of the Ottoman Empire. A weak economy made it impossible to maintain a large army, so the state relied mainly on alliances and mercenary troops for its defence. From the late 14th century, the Ottomans gradually seized Byzantine lands, so that by 1450 the empire had been reduced to Constantinople and a handful of nearby settlements. The city was by then sparsely populated – around 50,000-60,000 inhabitants, compared with several hundred thousand at its height in the 11th century. The Ottomans, under Sultan Mehmed II, prepared a major campaign, employing modern siege artillery, including massive bombards. The siege lasted from April until 29 May 1453, when the Turks breached the walls and entered the city.

Under the Ottoman Empire

After the capture of Constantinople in May 1453, Sultan Mehmed II almost immediately converted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque. The process began within the very first days after the city’s fall. First, the interior was cleansed, all remnants of Christian liturgy were removed, and elements essential for Muslim prayer were introduced. In the apse, a mihrab – a niche indicating the direction of Mecca – was installed, a minbar (pulpit for sermons) was added, and carpets were spread across the floor. The altar, reliquaries, and other liturgical furnishings were taken away. As a result, within just a few days of Constantinople’s capture, the Hagia Sophia was already functioning as a mosque, although the full adaptation of its architecture and aesthetics to the Islamic tradition would continue for decades.

In the first stage, the Christian mosaics and decorations were covered with cloths or a thin layer of plaster wherever required for Islamic prayer. In the 15th century, the Ottomans did not typically engage in the systematic destruction of such imagery – on the contrary, in the case of a monument as valuable and monumental as the Hagia Sophia, they favoured reversible methods, avoiding permanent interference with the decorative structure. The thin plaster was applied without deep bonding to the mosaics, making later uncovering easier. As a result, a significant portion of the mosaics survived the first decades of Ottoman rule in relatively good condition. Their complete covering or partial removal occurred only in the following centuries, usually due to renovations, moisture damage, or alterations. However, elements of gold and silver with intrinsic material value were melted down and reused for other purposes.

After the conversion of the Hagia Sophia into a mosque in 1453, work began on adding minarets, which would become a defining feature of its silhouette. The first minaret was built on the orders of Mehmed II soon after the city’s conquest, probably in brick or stone, positioned at one of the building’s corners. Its form was relatively slender and simple, in keeping with the Ottoman architecture of the time. In the 16th century, under Sultan Selim II and his successor Murad III, the renowned architect Mimar Sinan rebuilt the earlier minaret and added others, constructing them from white stone and giving them a more massive, harmonious appearance. Ultimately, the Hagia Sophia acquired four minarets – each slightly different, as they were built in different periods: the two south-western ones are larger and more solid, while the north-eastern and south-eastern are more slender. The minarets not only served a religious function (the call to prayer) but also became a visual symbol of the Islamisation of the former cathedral.

At Present

After the First World War, the Ottoman Empire, allied with Germany, was defeated. It was divided among the victorious powers, and Istanbul was occupied by British, French, and Italian forces. In Anatolia, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) broke out under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, later known as Atatürk. It ended with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which recognised the sovereign Turkish state. In the same year, the sultanate was abolished, and the capital was moved from Constantinople (Istanbul) to Ankara.

The Hagia Sophia continued to function as a mosque until 1931, when it was closed to worshippers by decision of the Republican authorities. In 1935, as part of Atatürk’s secular reforms, it was converted into a museum. This opened the way for the first systematic conservation work, including the uncovering of mosaics that had been hidden since the Ottoman era.

In 2020, the Hagia Sophia was once again converted into a mosque, resulting in changes to both access and interior display. The ground floor – the main prayer space – is now reserved for Muslim worshippers (primarily men), while tourists may access only the upper galleries. The mosaics on the ground floor uncovered during conservation work have not been destroyed or plastered over, but are covered with cloths and curtains. Some of these coverings remain in place even outside prayer times. By contrast, the mosaics uncovered in the upper galleries – being outside the prayer area – remain accessible and visible to visitors.

Although I was equipped with a fairly good camera, I was nevertheless unable to fully capture what was happening on the lower level of the church. The angles from which photographs can be taken from the galleries did not allow for a precise view of that part, so from my own observation I cannot confirm exactly what the situation is in the lower section of the interior. My camera has good zoom, but in darker spaces exposure time has its limits if you don’t have a tripod.

As for the upper section in the galleries, as far as I can recall, only two or three uncovered mosaics were visible. One was in relatively good condition, the other was damaged by about half – just as shown in the photographs attached. There is also a mosaic in the entrance area, outside the prayer zone, which currently has no unrestricted access, so it is likely viewed only by tourists – and it is this very mosaic that depicts the scene in which Emperor Constantine the Great offers the city, and Emperor Justinian I offers the Hagia Sophia, to the Blessed Virgin Mary and Christ. A photograph of this mosaic is also included in this material.

In the upper section, almost everywhere one can see plastered surfaces that have not been renovated for years. Much of this plaster is cracked, with peeling paint, as is clearly visible in the photographs. Conservation work, however, can be seen being carried out on the exterior of the church.

Hagia Sophia in Pictures

Hagia Sophia Istanbul | Sainte-Sophie Istanbul | Hagia Sophia Istanboel | Hagia Sophia Istanbul | Santa Sofía Estambul | Hagia Sophia Stambuł | Hagia Sophia Istanbul | Айя-София Стамбул | イスタンブールのアヤソフィア | 이스탄불 아야 소피아 | 伊斯坦布尔圣索菲亚大教堂 | Ayasofya İstanbul

Hagia Sophia inside as it currently is.

The Hagia Sophia is a living testament to centuries of faith, power, and change. Its walls still echo with the grandeur of its past, even as time and transformation have altered its form. Whatever its role, it remains one of the world’s most remarkable monuments.

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Category Archives: Sacred Grounds