A Short Note on the History of Latvia

2023 By justmovingaround in History, LATVIA Tags: Hanseatic League, History Guides by Country, Latvia

Though modest in size, Latvia boasts a rich and turbulent history that stretches back centuries. From the days of Baltic tribes and the arrival of Christian crusaders, through Hanseatic trade and foreign domination, to Soviet occupation and the re-emergence of independence, Latvia’s story is one of resilience and reinvention.

Already I have visited Latvia twice. Once it was just flying in and flying out of Riga, but the sceond time we journeyed through the Baltic States and had an occasion to see more of those countries than only their capital cities. Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia are usually considered together – mainly because they are three small neiggbouring countries. But even a simple look onto the historical cities of Vilnius, Riga and Tallin and their architecture, allows a conclusion that there had to be differences in their historical development. Let us now take a look onto the history of each of them. This post will be on the history of Latvia.

Early Middle Ages

The region of present-day Latvia was originally inhabited by Baltic tribes – Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, and Curonians, who belonged to the larger Indo-European family. Despite the periods of foreign domination, the Baltic tribes maintained their linguistic and cultural heritage, which gradually synthesised into the Latvian national identity.

By the 12th century, Latvia was a key area for Viking trade routes. The arrival of German crusaders in the 13th century led to the Christianization of the region and the establishment of the Livonian Order (earlier Livonian Brothers of the Sword), a branch of the Teutonic Knights. The crusades led to the widespread conversion of the local population to Christianity, often through force and coercion. One of the leading figures in the moddle aage history of Latvia was Bishop Albert, who founded the city of Riga in 1201 as a base for missionary activities and military operations. By the end of the 13th century, the territory of present-day Latvia had been incorporated into the crusader state known as Terra Mariana or Livonia, which included parts of modern-day Estonia and Latvia. The region was governed by the Livonian Order and the Archbishopric of Riga. It was the time of the Livonian Confederation, which included various bishoprics and the Livonian Order. German influence remained strong in the region for centuries, particularly among the nobility and urban populations. Riga, established as a crusader stronghold, grew into a major trade centre in the Baltic Sea region, becoming a member of the Hanseatic League in the late Middle Ages. The major hubs like Riga and Reval (later Tallinn in present-day Estonia) were natural gates from where Lutheranism began to spread in these territories. In 1522, the first Lutheran service was held in Riga, marking the beginning of the Reformation in the city. Over the next few decades, Lutheranism spread throughout Riga and other parts of the confederation.

Riga, house of the Blackheads, history of Riga

As a member of the Hanseatic League, Riga saw the construction of many Gothic-style buildings, including warehouses, guild houses, and residential buildings. The House of Blackheads carefully restored is a prime example of Gothic architecture from this period.

Livonian War and the Partition

In the late Middle Ages, Latvia’s territory was contested by Poland and Sweden. In the 16th century, the Livonian Order was collapsing. The powers present in the region – Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – saw an opportunity to seize the Livonian territories. The conflict is known in the history of Latvia as the Livonian War. By the end of the war, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth emerged as a dominant power in the region. The Duchy of Livonia was established under the suzerainty of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, encompassing southern parts of modern Latvia. The northern parts of modern Latvia and southern Estonia came under Swedish control. This area was known as Swedish Livonia.

Swedish rule introduced Baroque architectural elements to Riga. Buildings such as the Small and Great Guild Halls exhibit Baroque features.

Another entity established after the Livonian War was the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia. It was created as a vassal state under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which later became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first Duke of Courland and Semigallia was Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Livonian Order. He converted to Lutheranism and became the secular ruler of the newly formed duchy. The duchy prospered economically through agriculture, shipbuilding, and trade. Courland also developed ironworks and other manufacturing industries, contributing to its economic strength. Under the rule of Duke Jacob Kettler (1642-1682), the Duchy engaged in ambitious colonial ventures, establishing colonies in Tobago (in the Caribbean) and on St. Andrew’s Island (modern-day Gambia, Africa). The duchy’s prosperity declined due to the impact of wars and conflicts between the major powers in the region.

Post-Partition Time

The early 17th century saw a series of conflicts known as the Polish-Swedish Wars that infuenced the history of Latvia, as Sweden sought to expand its influence in the Baltic region at the expense of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the early 17th century, Sweden had gained control over most of Latvia, including Riga. The Swedish crown established a strong military presence in the region, fortifying cities and towns to defend against potential incursions from other powers, particularly Russia and Poland. Swedish rule further entrenched Lutheranism in Latvian culture and society.

After the Great Northern War (1700-1721), Swedish power in the Baltic region declined. By the end of the conflict, Russia emerged as the new dominant power in the area. Russian dominance over Latvian territories lasted until the early 20th century, including the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which was annexed by the Russian Empire during the third partition of Poland. The initial years of Russian rule were marked by relative religious and national tolerance. However, later Russian authorities sent Orthodox missionaries to the Baltic provinces, including Latvia, to convert the Lutheran population. Coercive measures were employed, including the restriction of Lutheran services and the promotion of Orthodoxy in public life.

Latvia Riga Art Nouveau district; history of Latvia

At the turn of the 20th century, Riga became a centre for Art Nouveau architecture, which accounts for about one-third of the buildings in the city centre

The late 19th and early 20th centuries was the time of the Latvian National Awakening that occurred in the context of the broader European national revival movements. Following World War I and the Russian Revolution that created some political vacuum around the Baltic countries, Latvia declared independence on November 18, 1918. The subsequent Latvian War of Independence (1918-1920) solidified its sovereignty. During the interwar period, Latvia experienced economic growth and democratic governance, though it was marred by political instability. During World War II, Latvia was alternately under Soviet and German occupation, a period marked by repression, suppression of national identity, significant loss of life, and destruction. In 1944, Latvia was re-occupied by the Soviet Union, beginning four decades of Sovietization, which included industrialization, collectivization, and Russification. Many Latvians were deported to Siberia during Stalin’s purges, and there was significant immigration of Russian-speaking populations into Latvia.

Re-independence and Modern Era

In 1989, approximately two million people from Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia formed a human chain stretching over 600 kilometres (373 miles) to peacefully protest Soviet occupation. This event is known as the Baltic Way. It opened a new chapter in the history of Latvia. The country finally regained independence with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. It embarked on economic reforms, transitioning to a market economy and joining the European Union and NATO in 2004. Latvia adopted the EU currency euro in 2014, following Estonia (2011) and preceding Lithuania (2015).

Latvia has a significant Russian-speaking minority, making up about 25-30% of the population. The country faces unique challenges related to the integration of its Russian-speaking population, including issues of language use in education and public life.

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A couple who came from England …

2020 By justmovingaround in History Tags: Cemeteries, History Guides by Country, New Zealand

During our two-week stay in New Zealand, we once visited a town that seemed totally deserted. In high season it was popular with surfers. But with a heavy storm on approach, there was not a soul around us. It was like we would have reached the end of the world. The name of the town was Collingwood. The storm was still away. We took a walk. Just a walk around. No plan. No specific idea. No map.

Collingwood seemed a deserted place. A couple of buildings only in the old town center. Many properties for sale. The houses in the main streets had already the best times behind them. Only a few houses seemed to be new or renovated. Street art was a reminder of past times. People in elegant 19th or early 20th-century clothing.

As we walked the deserted street of Collingwood, we have noticed a guidepost pointing out a historic cemetery in half-hour distance. The cemetery was an abandoned place but well-marked and ring fenced. The old graves seemed to befall. But the graves were real storytellers. We read of a man who came to the town but accidentally died in a river. Of a couple who came in the late 19th century and died one after another in the 20s of the 20th century. And finally, of a man who died fulfilling his duties.

It made me realize that New Zealand’s history is not only about Maori and conquest. It is also about the colonists, who, for different reasons, came here with hope but with no return ticket home.

The common knowledge is that the Maori traditionally inhabited new Zealand. But indeed, they were not indigenous to the islands. They came to New Zealand in the 14th century from Polynesia. Through the years, they developed their own culture. But, they were not homogeneous folk. They used to live in smaller or bigger tribes. Some of the quiet and peaceful. And some engaging in conflict and warfare. Their lives have changed with the emergence of western whalers and traders, who sold them guns. They exchange produce but also land for guns. It was still before the regular colonization of the country began. Maori who put their hands on the modern guns haunted and raided Maori, who still had used traditional weapons. You can imagine what the outcome was. Some of the smaller and peaceful tribes came to extinction. This period is called the Musket Wars in the New Zealand history books.

The first who settled in New Zealand were traders and missionaries, who cheaply bought land from the Maori tribes. Later, the New Zealand company appeared on the horizon. As the Maori never before sold land but rather conquered it, the acquisition process was not entirely clear to them.

Some entrepreneurs under the New Zealand Company launched regular colonization of the New Zealand islands. They organized trips for the English who are ready to start a new life in some distant land. For most of those, who looked for a better new life in New Zealand, this was a one-way ticket. But some of the sponsors were indeed not interested in people who could afford to buy land. They were interested in cheap labor building the new economy for them. For some settlers, a new life truly began. For some, it was a lifelong disappointment. Altogether out of 400,000 first colonists, 100,000 left New Zealand in later years.

In the meantime, around 1840, the British government decided to take stronger action. The British Crown treated NZ as their own from the mid-18th century, with the Maori having absolutely no idea about it. Consequently, an agreement between the British Crown and the Maori tribes from the North Island was signed. It was called the Treaty of Waitangi. The Brits called this agreement – the sovereignty agreement. But there was a discrepancy between the English version of the agreement and the Maori text. For the Maori, the agreement was just only about administering lands. The result was New Zealand wars about the land issues with the regular English troops emerging on the islands. The land was no longer bought from the Maori. It was taken from them. The colonization was no longer to stop.

The Maori impoverished pushed to the edge of New Zealand’s society. It took more than 120 years before some contractual clauses of the Treaty of Waitangi were respected.

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Liberty Leading the People. A Short Recollection of Historical Events in Revolutionary France

2020 By justmovingaround in History Tags: France, History Guides by Country

The French Revolution is one of the most analysed periods in European history – from the storming of the Bastille to the rise of the First Republic and the appointment of its first president. It’s all been written about extensively, yet I wanted to explore it on my own terms, piece things together and reflect on it in my own way. Here’s my take on that turbulent journey from monarchy to republic.

While visiting the Louvre, as I usually do in museums, I took photos of several paintings to remember the experience. One of them was the famous Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix, which depicts the events of the July Revolution in Paris in 1830. I remembered seeing this painting many times during history lessons. As a symbol of the revolutionary spirit in France, it is often reproduced in school textbooks.

In the painting, a topless woman – an allegorical figure representing Liberty – leads a crowd of Parisians forward under the tricolor flag during the uprising. The French tricolor symbolizes liberty (blue), equality (white), and fraternity (red). Alternatively, it has also been interpreted to represent the three estates of pre-revolutionary France: the bourgeoisie (blue), the clergy (white), and the nobility (red). This classification reflects the traditional social hierarchy of historical Europe, where the clergy constituted the First Estate, the nobility the Second, and the commoners – including peasants and the bourgeoisie – the Third Estate.

Liberty Leading the People – historical events in revolutionary France | La Liberté guidant le peuple – événements historiques dans la France révolutionnaire | Die Freiheit führt das Volk an – historische Ereignisse im revolutionären Frankreich | Wolność wiodąca lud – wydarzenia historyczne we rewolucyjnej Francji

The painting is so well-known that it’s easy to forget it depicts the second wave of the French Revolution – the July Revolution of 1830 – and not the events of 1789 that took place forty years earlier. Today, on the eve of July 14th, the anniversary of the Bastille storming, it’s a fitting moment to reflect on the key events of revolutionary France – moments that profoundly transformed the nation and left a lasting impact on all of Europe.

The French Revolution of 1789

The French Revolution – often referred to as the First French Revolution – is commonly associated with the storming and subsequent demolition of the Bastille in 1789. Bastille Day, celebrated on 14 July, is now recognised as France’s National Day. These events were driven by a combination of deep social inequality, economic hardship, and political crisis. The clergy and nobility enjoyed privileges, while the vast majority – peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie – were burdened by heavy taxation and lived in poverty. Years of poor harvests and rising bread prices pushed the lower classes to the brink of starvation. France faced a severe financial crisis caused by extravagant royal spending and debts from previous wars, fought not only in Europe but also in America. Meanwhile, French Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu criticised absolutism, social inequality, and the lack of civil liberties. Attempts at reform were blocked by the privileged classes, resulting in political deadlock. Inspired by Enlightenment principles, the Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, demanding the establishment of a constitution.

The Bastille was a medieval fortress in Paris, built in the 14th century as part of the city’s fortifications. Over time, it was transformed into a state prison where political prisoners, individuals without a court verdict and aristocrats were held. On July 14, 1789, it was stormed by the people of Paris. The fall of the Bastille symbolized the end of absolutism and the repression of the monarchy. The fortress was soon demolished, and its stones were used, among other things, for building monuments and bridges. Today, the Place de la Bastille stands in its place.

However, it took more than three years of political turmoil before the French finally proclaimed the First Republic on September 21, 1792, officially abolishing the monarchy.

Between the storming of the Bastille and the proclamation of the First Republic, France underwent a radical transformation. The fall of the Bastille marked the beginning of mass resistance to absolutism (the absolute rule of the king). Soon, the people forced the king to move from Versailles to Paris, where he became a prisoner of his own nation. The National Assembly abolished privileges and introduced new laws, but tensions did not subside. The king attempted to flee the country with his family in an effort to save the monarchy, but he was recognised and brought back. Louis XVI had two adult brothers – the Count of Provence (later Louis XVIII) and the Count of Artois (later Charles X) – who managed to escape France, fearing for their safety and refusing to accept the social and political changes. Ultimately, King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette were arrested, and royal authority was overthrown.

Soon after, France declared itself a republic. The act was undertaken by one-chamber National Convention, elected under France’s first male universal suffrage consisting of around 749 deputies. The monarchy ceased to exist, and the fate of the king and queen became only a matter of time. Following the proclamation of the First Republic, France plunged into a period of instability and violence. The National Convention soon condemned the king to death.

Important figures in this story, from left to right: Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, hated by the people and guillotined during the Revolution in 1793. Next to them stands another figure executed later: Maximilien Robespierre, the architect of the Reign of Terror, who ultimately fell victim to his own system. Although Robespierre was not directly responsible for the execution of the king, his stance, speeches, and vote were crucial in tipping the balance towards the death sentence. During the sessions of the National Convention in January 1793, Robespierre was among those who voted in favour of executing Louis XVI. In total, 387 deputies voted for death, while 334 opposed.

After the execution of Louis XVI, the Revolution entered a radical phase – a period of terror, during which political opponents were mass-executed by guillotine. One of the most influential and at the same time most controversial figures of the French Revolution was Maximilien Robespierre. He was a well-educated lawyer who quickly rose to prominence and took a leading role in the Committee of Public Safety, which effectively acted as the revolutionary government. His name is most closely associated with the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), during which thousands were executed by guillotine, often on charges of counter-revolutionary activity.

However, his radicalism and increasing power began to alarm even his former allies. He was overthrown during the coup of 9 Thermidor (according to the revolutionary calendar introduced by the National Convention, corresponding to 27 July 1794) and guillotined the following day without trial – ironically falling victim to the very system of terror he had helped to create.

After Robespierre’s fall, the Revolution entered a more moderate phase. A five-member government, known as the Directory, attempted to stabilise the country, but faced persistent challenges, including economic hardship, corruption, and civil unrest. During this period, a young and talented general, Napoleon Bonaparte, began to rise to prominence through a series of remarkable military victories. In 1799, he staged a coup d’état on the 18th of Brumaire, assuming power as First Consul of the Republic. He would later transform France into the French Empire, marking the end of the revolutionary republic and the beginning of a new chapter in French history: the Napoleonic era.

After taking power, Napoleon Bonaparte quickly consolidated his position. He introduced a series of reforms that restored order after years of chaos – reorganising the administration, the legal system (with the introduction of the Napoleonic Code), streamlining public finances, and signing a concordat with the Holy See. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French, definitively bringing the republican era to an end.

In the years that followed, Napoleon waged numerous wars, building a vast empire that encompassed much of Europe. However, his growing ambitions eventually led to the overextension of the state and increasing resistance from other powers. The greatest blow came with his failed expedition to Russia in 1812, which marked the beginning of a series of military defeats. In 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba. He returned briefly during the so-called Hundred Days, but after his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, he was forced to abdicate once again and was exiled to Saint Helena, where he spent the remainder of his life.

The next figures in this story, who played a role in restoring the monarchy after the First French Revolution, did so under very different conditions than before the Revolution. From left to right: Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis XVIII, and Charles X. The first was a gifted military commander from a poor Corsican noble family of Italian origin. The other two were younger brothers of Louis XVI, who had been executed by guillotine. Their reigns ultimately led to another popular revolution.

With Napoleon’s defeat and the Congress of Vienna (1815), the monarchy was re-established in France, placing another Bourbon king on the throne. The new monarch, Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, assumed the throne as a constitutional monarch, marking the end of the era of revolution and empire. Unlike an absolute monarch, who rules without limitations, a constitutional monarch shares power with parliament and is bound by law. Such a monarch cannot make decisions unilaterally, and in the case of Louis XVIII, his authority was defined by the Constitutional Charter of 1814. The French parliament consisted of the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers, and the king had to take their role into account in the legislative process. Basic civil liberties were recognised, and many reforms introduced during the Revolution and under Napoleon were preserved, including the Napoleonic Code.

In this context, it is worth noting the absence of Louis XVII from the practical succession of French monarchs. Louis XVII was the title given to the seven-year-old son of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, Louis-Charles, following his father’s execution in 1793. At the time, monarchists recognised him as the rightful king, even though he never held actual power, as he was held in custody and died in 1795 under tragic circumstances. His uncle, Louis XVIII, wishing to emphasise the legality of the succession and the continuity of the monarchy despite the Revolution and Napoleon’s rule, proclaimed himself the eighteenth king, thereby acknowledging Louis XVII’s symbolic place in the royal lineage.

The July Revolution of 1830

After the death of Louis XVIII in 1824, power passed to his younger brother, Charles X, who was known for his conservative views. Unlike his predecessor, he sought to restore absolutism and reinforce monarchical authority. He supported the Catholic Church and the aristocracy, attempting to reverse social reforms and reduce the influence of the bourgeoisie. In July 1830, he dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, provoking a violent public response. Riots erupted in Paris, known as the July Revolution. Barricades appeared in the streets, and the people – supported by liberal activists and elements of the army – forced Charles X to abdicate and flee the country. It is precisely these events that are depicted in Delacroix’s famous painting.

The July Revolution of 1830 was seen as a symbol of liberalism’s victory over absolutism. Although it ultimately led to a lasting change in borders and political system only in Belgium, it sparked a wave of hope, resistance, and mobilisation in many other countries. These sentiments would return even more forcefully during the Spring of Nations in 1848, which was once again sparked by the French.

The February Revolution of 1848

In place of the deposed monarch, Louis-Philippe I of the Orléans dynasty took the throne, proclaiming himself King of the French rather than King of France – a gesture meant to symbolise popular sovereignty. This marked the beginning of the more liberal monarchy, but still restricting the rights of the majority of citizens – voting rights were limited by property qualifications. The House of Orléans was a cadet branch of the Bourbon dynasty, descending from Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the younger brother of King Louis XIV. Members of this branch were not originally intended to inherit the throne. What is more, Louis-Philippe’s father, Philippe Égalité, was known for his support of the Revolution of 1789 and even voted in favour of the execution of Louis XVI, despite being a member of the royal family himself.

Over time, the king increasingly distanced himself from liberal ideals. Restricted voting rights, corruption, and growing poverty, especially among workers and the lower middle class, led to mass demonstrations. When the government banned the organisation of public banquets – a form of political protest – the situation spiralled out of control. After several days of street fighting, Louis-Philippe abdicated and fled to England. As a result of pressure from the streets and the actions of republicans, the Second French Republic was proclaimed on 24 February 1848. It promised a series of reforms: universal male suffrage, freedom of the press, social rights, and the creation of national workshops for the unemployed.

It was a turning point – for the second time in its history, France became a republic, and once again its example inspired revolutionary movements across other parts of Europe. Revolutions broke out almost simultaneously in Germany, Austria, Italy, Hungary, and other countries. Their common demands included civil liberties, constitutions, social reforms, and, in some regions, national independence. Although in most countries the revolutions were quickly suppressed by conservative forces, this Spring of Nations revealed the depth of social and national tensions in Europe and marked the beginning of long-term political change. In many states, monarchs were forced to adopt at least partial reforms.

The next three figures in this story are Louis-Philippe I of Orléans, a king who had once supported the Revolution but later abandoned his earlier convictions; Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the first elected president of France under the Second Republic, who later staged a coup d’état and declared himself Emperor; and finally Adolphe Thiers, a monarchist who became the first president of the French Third Republic.

The political system of the Second French Republic established the office of a president elected by the citizens through universal suffrage, which was a novelty not only for France but for Europe as a whole. The election took place on 10 December 1848. It was the first fully universal and direct presidential election in French history, in which all men over the age of 21 were eligible to vote. The winner was Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who secured around 75% of the vote. He was the son of Louis Bonaparte, the younger brother of Napoleon I, making him the emperor’s nephew. His mother was Napoleon’s stepdaughter, the daughter of Joséphine (Napoleon’s wife) from her first marriage. Although Louis-Napoléon did not descend from the main line of succession, he strongly identified with the legend of his uncle from a young age and pursued the goal of restoring the Bonapartist Empire.

Louis-Napoléon thus became the first president in French history. His term was meant to last four years, with no possibility of re-election. However, he carried out a coup d’état, and declared himself Emperor, ending the Second Republic and inaugurating the Second Empire as Napoleon III. Why Napoleon III? Between Napoleon I and Louis-Napoléon, there was another member of the dynasty who, formally – though not in practice – succeeded to the throne: Napoleon II, the son of Napoleon I and his second wife Marie Louise of Austria. He was given the title King of Rome, and after his father’s abdication in 1815, he was symbolically proclaimed emperor by Bonapartist supporters. Although he never exercised real power – being a child raised at the Austrian court – he was considered the legitimate heir to the throne. He died young. So when Louis-Napoléon came to power, he adopted the title Napoleon III out of respect for his cousin’s memory.

His reign came to an abrupt end during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 that was a turning point in 19th-century European history. Its main cause was the struggle for dominance on the continent – the rising power of Prussia, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, alarmed France under Napoleon III. The immediate pretext for war was the so-called Spanish Crisis – the proposal that a member of the German Hohenzollern dynasty take the Spanish throne. France demanded the candidate withdraw, and Bismarck, by deliberately altering the content of a telegram, engineered a diplomatic scandal that provoked France into declaring war. France expected a swift victory, but the French army suffered a crushing defeat, and Emperor Napoleon III was taken prisoner.

A popular uprising broke out in Paris – the emperor was deposed and the Third Republic was proclaimed. The Prussians continued their offensive, launching a siege of Paris that lasted until January 1871. The war ended with the Treaty of Frankfurt, under which France was forced to pay heavy war reparations to Prussia and to cede Alsace and Lorraine. The defeat marked the end of Bonapartist rule and ultimately buried hopes for a monarchical restoration.

For France, the defeat marked the beginning of a long period of national humiliation, one that would linger until the outbreak of the First World War. Despite this, the French Third Republic endured. While it had a president as head of state, real power lay with a strong parliamentary system. The office of president existed until 1940, when the Third Republic was overthrown following France’s defeat by Nazi Germany. The first president and founding figure of the Third Republic was Adolphe Thiers. Though a monarchist by conviction, he accepted the republic as the lesser evil and played a crucial role in consolidating the new regime. He was elected by parliament during the chaos of post-war France, seen as a figure of compromise and stability. His mission was clear: to secure peace, repay war reparations to Germany, and prevent the complete disintegration of the country.

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Tag Archives: History Guides by Country

A Short Note on the History of Latvia

A couple who came from England …

Liberty Leading the People. A Short Recollection of Historical Events in Revolutionary France

The French Revolution of 1789