The pontificate of Pius XII spanned one of the most turbulent periods in modern history. Elected pope just months before the outbreak of the Second World War, he found himself navigating a Church caught between diplomacy, survival, and growing moral scrutiny. His actions – and silences – have sparked decades of debate.

St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican is both a place of pilgrimage and a major tourist destination — the most prominent Catholic church in the world. Like many sacred buildings, it holds an extensive collection of artworks. Among them are sculptures and mosaics which, from a distance, resemble paintings but are in fact intricate compositions made of tiny glass tesserae. Each carries its own meaning. Many of the statues commemorate saints and popes — names largely unfamiliar to me.

I moved slowly through the basilica, reading inscriptions, taking photographs, trying to make sense of what I saw. But without a deeper familiarity with Catholic history, I often found myself unable to place these figures in their historical roles. One in particular, however, stood out — both in posture and significance: Pope Pius XII, whose papacy unfolded during some of the most turbulent decades of the 20th century.

Pius XII – His Papacy and Political Setting

Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli (1876–1958), served as head of the Catholic Church from 1939 until his death in 1958. His pontificate was notable not only for its length, but for the turbulent historical period it encompassed — including the rise of Benito Mussolini, the events of World War II, and the early years of the Cold War.

Before ascending to the papacy, Pacelli had already been a major figure in Vatican diplomacy, serving as Cardinal Secretary of State. In that role, he was deeply involved in negotiating the Lateran Pacts of 1929, signed under Pope Pius XI with then Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. These agreements marked a legal, financial, and religious realignment between the Catholic Church and the Italian state, following decades of estrangement.

The Lateran Pacts consisted of three components. First, a political treaty established Vatican City as a sovereign state. Second, a financial convention provided compensation from the Italian government to the Holy See for the loss of the Papal States — including both a lump sum and a perpetual annuity. Third, a Concordat regulated the relationship between Church and State. It declared Catholicism the state religion of Italy, defined the legal and civil status of clergy, and introduced religious education into the national school system.

This settlement ended the so-called Roman Question — a conflict that had remained unresolved since the unification of Italy in 1870. It was not merely a religious agreement, but also a recognition of the Church as a political actor in modern Europe.

Challenges of Papal Diplomacy in Fascist Europe

During Pius XII’s lifetime, Italy was under Fascist rule, and the European balance of power was rapidly disintegrating. His early papacy coincided with the signing of the Nazi–Soviet Pact, the invasion of Poland, and the outbreak of the Second World War. Already serving as Cardinal Secretary of State, and now as pope, Pius XII was faced with the challenge of responding to Mussolini’s Fascist policies, many of which stood in direct contradiction to Catholic doctrine. These included Italy’s entry into the war and the introduction of racial laws, which imposed legal discrimination and aligned the regime more closely with Nazi ideology. What had begun as a career shaped by diplomacy was now overtaken by the demands of navigating a world in which religious and ethical values were being systematically dismantled.

Pius XII took an approach of deliberate silence. He did not speak out publicly or unambiguously on the persecution of Jews, the crimes of the Nazi regime, or the actions of totalitarian governments. In official documents, speeches and homilies, he refrained from naming countries, nationalities, or specific acts of genocide. When he did refer to suffering or violence, he did so in general terms, without identifying the perpetrators. He did not speak plainly. One striking example was the deportation of over a thousand Roman Jews in October 1943. Arrested by Nazi forces and taken from the very city in which the Vatican stood, they were sent to Auschwitz. The pope did not issue a public protest. No official statement was released, and no mass held in their name. The silence at that moment has become one of the most cited — and contested — aspects of his wartime record.

This stance has been interpreted by some scholars as passive complicity, and by others as a strategic decision, intended to avoid exacerbating the situation — particularly for Catholics and Jews living in Nazi-occupied territories.

Although Pius XII remained silent in public, numerous actions indicate that he was involved in discreet humanitarian efforts behind the scenes. Under his authority, Catholic institutions across Europe — including monasteries, convents, seminaries, and Church-run schools — provided shelter to Jews, political refugees, and others at risk. In Rome alone, over 4,000 Jews are estimated to have been hidden within religious buildings during the Nazi occupation. Approximately 477 sought refuge within the Vatican itself or at the papal residence in Castel Gandolfo.

In addition to providing shelter, some Church institutions issued false baptismal certificates and other forged identity documents to help individuals evade arrest and deportation. These actions were often carried out discreetly by local clergy — sometimes with tacit Vatican approval, and in certain cases, reportedly under direct papal instruction. While the documentation remains fragmentary, some testimonies and post-war investigations suggest that Pius XII was informed of these efforts and, in specific instances, either authorised them verbally or allowed them to proceed without interference. In Rome, the network of safe houses expanded significantly during the German occupation, and the fact that Vatican City itself sheltered hundreds of Jews strongly indicates at least a top-level awareness, if not formal coordination.

A Figure Still Under Review

Pius XII’s wartime policy remains the subject of ongoing historical scrutiny and debate. Interpretations vary depending on how his actions — or inactions — are assessed in light of the complex wartime context and the archival material that has become more accessible in recent years.

Under his leadership, the Vatican was required to navigate difficult moral ground: maintaining the recently recognised sovereignty of the Holy See, while also fulfilling the spiritual responsibilities of the papacy. His approach was defined by diplomatic caution and a consistent focus on practical humanitarian assistance, rather than public denunciation.

This strategy has drawn criticism from some historians, who view it as a failure to clearly condemn atrocities committed during the war. Others argue that it reflected a deliberate, constrained choice — shaped by the risks, the political realities of the time, and a belief that quiet intervention might achieve more than public confrontation.

In the end, Pius XII’s papacy stands as a case study in the use of silence — as a diplomatic tool, a moral posture, and a legacy that continues to challenge historical understanding. In that sense, Pius XII does not simply stand for what the Church did – or failed to do – during the war. He embodies a broader human dilemma: how to act when all options carry a cost. His legacy is not only about history, but about the present – a reminder that moral clarity often arrives only in hindsight.