A Quick Guide to the History of the Netherlands

2024 By justmovingaround in History Tags: Belgium, discoveries, Dutch Golden Age, Dutch history, Low Countries, Netherlands, slavery

When traveling, especially when we are focused on a lot of sightseeing, it’s worth getting acquainted with the history of the country to understand what we see. Below a quick overview on the history of the Netherlands or in English the Low Countries.

The Early and Middle Ages

In ancient times, the area now known as the Netherlands was part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The northern territories remained largely outside Roman control. They were inhabited by various Germanic tribes. As the Roman Empire declined, the region experienced significant political fragmentation and waves of migration. The vacuum left by the Romans was filled by the Merovingian-ruled Frankish Kingdom, integrating the Netherlands into their territories. Missionaries like Saint Willibrord and Saint Boniface played crucial roles in converting the local pagan tribes to Christianity, laying the foundation for a unified cultural and religious identity.

A mural Charlemagne and Einhard by Georg Sturm that can be seen at the West side of the Great Hall of Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

The Habsburg Rule and the Emergence of the Dutch Republic

When Charles V abdicated in 1556, his son Philip II inherited the Spanish crown and the Netherlands. Philip II’s reign marked the beginning of a difficult and oppressive period for the Dutch. His centralised and authoritarian approach clashed with the relatively autonomous and pluralistic traditions of the Low Countries. Philip II was a staunch Catholic and sought to enforce religious uniformity across his empire. The introduction of the Spanish Inquisition aimed to root out Protestantism, which was rapidly gaining followers. The Inquisition’s brutal methods, including torture and execution, sparked widespread fear and resentment marking a dark period in the history of the Netherlands.

In addition to religious oppression, Philip II’s heavy taxation and centralised control over local affairs exacerbated tensions. The wealth generated by Dutch trade and commerce was increasingly diverted to support Spain’s wars and imperial ambitions, leading to economic hardships in the Netherlands. The nobility and merchant class, who had traditionally enjoyed a degree of self-governance, found their privileges under threat. In 1568, this discontent ignited the Dutch Revolt, marking the start of a prolonged struggle for independence. The northern provinces rebelled against Spanish rule, leading to the Eighty Years’ War. In 1581, the northern provinces declared independence, leading to the formation of the Dutch Republic. By the end of the 1580s, however, Spanish control was largely re-established in the southern provinces (forming the so-called Spanish Netherlands). These southern regions remained under Habsburg rule and staunchly Catholic, contrasting sharply with the Protestant-dominated northern provinces.

This division resulted in significant socio-economic shifts. The mass migration of skilled labour and merchants from the south to the north fuelled the economic rise of cities like Amsterdam, transforming them into major commercial hubs. Meanwhile, southern cities like Antwerp experienced economic decline as they lost their economic vitality. The consolidation of Spanish control in the southern provinces and the independence of the northern provinces led to the emergence of two distinct entities. The Southern Netherlands, under Habsburg rule, retained its Catholic identity, while the northern Dutch Republic thrived as a centre of Protestantism and trade. This division laid the foundation for the modern distinction between the Netherlands and Belgium.

Trade, Crafts, Discoveries, Colonialism and the Golden Age

During the Middle Ages, the Netherlands developed several key sources of wealth that contributed to its economic growth and prosperity. The regions of Flanders and Holland, had fertile soil ideal for agriculture. This allowed for the production of various crops, including grains, vegetables, and flax. The production of dairy products, especially cheese and butter, became a significant source of income, as well. Flanders became renowned for its wool and cloth production. The region imported raw wool from England and produced high-quality textiles that were exported across Europe. The development of sophisticated weaving techniques and the establishment of guilds helped to enhance the quality and reputation of Dutch textiles. The herring fishery was a crucial industry for the Dutch economy. Innovations in fishing techniques and preservation, such as gutting and brining herring at sea, allowed Dutch fishermen to dominate the North Sea herring trade. The coastal and inland waters also provided other fish varieties, contributing to the local diet and trade.

The prosperity from trade and commerce led to the development of early banking and financial systems. Cities like Bruges and Antwerp became financial hubs where merchants could secure loans and conduct business. Craft and merchant guilds played a vital role in regulating trade, maintaining quality standards, and protecting the interests of their members. These organizations helped to foster economic stability and growth throughout the history of the Netherlands.

Bruges, the Beurse, history of the Netherlands

The restored Van der Beurse family house in Bruges that replaced the original Three Purses tavern, where the first usances of echange trading had been developed.

Decline and Transformation

The 18th century marked a period of relative decline in the history of the Netherlands. The nation’s economic and naval power waned as rival powers, particularly Britain and France, rose to prominence. Internal political struggles and external conflicts, such as the War of the Spanish Succession and the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, further weakened the Dutch Republic.

The late 18th century saw the rise of revolutionary sentiments across Europe. In 1795, inspired by the French Revolution, the Batavian Republic was established, replacing the Dutch Republic. However, this new republic soon fell under French influence, leading to the incorporation of the Netherlands into the Napoleonic Empire. The period of French control brought significant administrative and social reforms. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna established the Kingdom of the Netherlands, uniting the northern and southern provinces. King William I sought to modernise the country, promoting industrialisation and infrastructure development. However, tensions between the Dutch-speaking north and the French-speaking south led to the Belgian Revolution in 1830, resulting in the independence of Belgium.

Belgium Brussels Patria Monument, history of the Netherlands

A relief depicting the Belgian revolution on the Patria monument in Brussels, Belgium.

Mary II Stuart, the Protestant Queen of England

2024 By justmovingaround in History Tags: bust, England, historic figure, Netherlands, queen, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Scotland

While going through photos from the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, I came across an image I’d taken without much thought at the time — a marble bust of a noblewoman, striking but unfamiliar. I hadn’t stopped to read the plaque, as I often don’t when travelling, preferring to take photos and look things up later. This time, Google Lens revealed the subject to be Mary II Stuart the Protestant Queen of England — a figure I realised I’d already written about in the context of Scottish history. Seeing her again, now through the work of a Flemish sculptor displayed in the Netherlands, made me revisit her story and the political landscape that tied together England, Scotland, and the Dutch Republic in the 17th century.

Mary II Stuart, the Protestant Queen of England | Marie II Stuart, la reine protestante d’Angleterre | 玛丽二世·斯图亚特，英格兰的新教女王

Sometimes, when you travel to different countries and visit museums, you come across works by local artists that depict people or events significant to that country’s history. You might realise you’ve seen the same figure or story before — just in a different context. I had exactly that kind of déjà vu while going through photos of artworks I’d taken at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. While walking through the museum, I didn’t have time to read every plaque. The artworks were so captivating that I simply photographed whatever caught my eye. One of those images turned out to be a bust of a noblewoman.

After returning home, I used Google Lens to identify the creator of the bust and the person it portrayed. I learned that the artist was Jan Michiel Rysbrack, and the bust depicted Mary II Stuart, Queen of England. That discovery piqued my curiosity, so I went online to find out more. To my surprise, I realised I had already written about her a few years ago — in a post on the history of … Scotland.

SCOTTISH HISTORY shortly explained

The sculptor, a renowned Flemish artist, made significant contributions to British art in the 18th century. Born in 1694 in Antwerp – now part of Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium – he moved to London in 1720. Back in 1700, Antwerp was still part of the Spanish Netherlands, a region in the southern Low Countries that remained under Spanish control from the 16th century until the early 18th century. Because of my work, I’ve often travelled to Belgium, and my recent trip to the neighbouring Netherlands might be the perfect occasion to write a post on the fascinating history of this region sometime soon.

For now, however, I’ll turn my attention to Mary Stuart, and explore why a Queen of England from a Scottish dynasty is featured so prominently in one of the main galleries of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.

Amsterdam Rijksmuseum Mary II Steward Queen of England

Mary II Stuart, Queen of England, a bust by Jan Michiel Rysbrackon on display in Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

Mary II Stuart, the Protestant Queen of England | Marie II Stuart, la reine protestante d’Angleterre | 玛丽二世·斯图亚特，英格兰的新教女王

Mary II Stuart was born in 1662 at St. James’s Palace in London. She was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (later James II of England) and his first wife, Anne Hyde. Mary belonged to the Scottish Stuart dynasty, which had ruled England since the early 17th century. Although her father was a Catholic, Mary was raised as a Protestant – a decision that would prove crucial later in her life. Her uncle, Charles II, who was king at the time of her birth, was publicly Protestant, though he is believed to have converted to Catholicism on his deathbed. During his reign, it was politically expedient to maintain a Protestant public image in order to secure Parliament’s support and preserve stability. As for James, Mary’s father, the exact date of his conversion remains uncertain, but it is thought he became Catholic in the late 1660s. He kept his faith private for several years to avoid political repercussions, but by 1673, his conversion was publicly known. Nonetheless, keeping Mary’s Protestant upbringing was seen as vital to reassure Parliament and the English public that the Protestant succession would continue.

At the age of 15, in 1677, Mary married her first cousin, William of Orange – a Protestant and the son of William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal of England, who was the daughter of Charles I of England. The marriage was part of a wider political effort to secure Protestant alliances for the British throne. At the time, Charles II, King of England and Mary’s uncle, was in poor health and – at least officially – remained Protestant.

William III of Orange was not King of the Netherlands in the modern sense of the term. Instead, he held the title of Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic from 1672. The Dutch Republic was a confederation of provinces in what is now the Netherlands, and the role of Stadtholder was neither hereditary nor equivalent to a monarchy. It was an appointed position, granted by the provinces, and primarily served as a military commander and political leader, rather than a sovereign ruler.

The Dutch Republic, officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, was established in the northern part of the Low Countries in 1648, after gaining independence from Spain. Southern provinces such as Flanders, Brabant, and Hainaut remained under Spanish Catholic rule, a territory known as the Spanish Netherlands.

James II, King of England | Jacques II, roi d’Angleterre | Jakob II., König von England | Jaime II, rey de Inglaterra | Jakub II, król Anglii | Яков II, король Англии | 詹姆斯二世，英格兰国王 | 제임스 2세, 영국 왕 | ジェームズ2世・イングランド王

Mary II Stuart, the Queen of England | Marie II Stuart, reine d’Angleterre | Maria II. Stuart, Königin von England | María II Estuardo, reina de Inglaterra | Maria II Stuart, królowa Anglii | Мария II Стюарт, королева Англии | 玛丽二世·斯图亚特，英格兰女王 | 메리 2세 스튜어트, 영국 여왕 | メアリー2世・スチュアート、イングランド女王

William of Orange | Guillaume d’Orange | Wilhelm von Oranien | Guillermo de Orange | Wilhelm Orański | Вильгельм Оранский | 奥兰治的威廉 | 오렌지 공 윌리엄 | オラニエ公ウィリアム

The key figures in this story are James II, father of Mary, Mary II Stuart, whose statue appears in the photo above, and her husband, William of Orange

Mary’s father, James II, ascended to the English throne in 1685, but his Catholic faith and increasingly autocratic rule led to growing discontent across the kingdom. William’s marriage to Mary placed him in a strong position to challenge his father-in-law. In 1688, William III of Orange invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. James II fled to France, and William and Mary were jointly offered the throne by the English Parliament. Mary II reigned alongside William III until her death in 1694, and she was buried in Westminster Abbey. William continued to rule alone until his own death in 1702.

In the years that followed, the Jacobites — supporters of the deposed Stuart king James II and his descendants — sought to restore the Stuart monarchy to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland, but ultimately failed in their efforts. Great Britain remained Protestant, and the Hanoverian dynasty eventually solidified its rule. The name Jacobite comes from Jacobus, the Latin form of James.

#RIJKSMUSEUM AMSTERDAM

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Mary II Stuart, the Protestant Queen of England

Van Gogh. Genius, Struggle and a Posthumous Fortune

2024 By justmovingaround in Art and Artefacts Tags: Amsterdam, artist, Netherlands, painter, Van Gogh

Van Gogh painted obsessively, lived in poverty, struggled with mental illness, and died unrecognised. Today, his works hang in the world’s top museums and sell for tens of millions. This quiet visit to the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam reminded me just how fragile – and powerful – artistic legacy can be.

Van Gogh | Ван Гог | 梵高 | ゴッホ | 반 고흐

He sold almost nothing during his lifetime. Now his paintings are auctioned for millions, printed on mugs, and displayed in packed museums. A visit to the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam offers not just a look at the art – but at the myth that grew around the artist.

About Van Gogh’s life

Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch post-impressionist painter, born in Groot-Zundert, Netherlands. Over his lifetime, he created more than two thousand artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of which were produced in the last two years of his life.

Van Gogh’s early works were dark and sombre, reflecting the influence of the Dutch masters. This period, known as his Dutch phase, lasted from around 1880 to 1885 and focused on depicting peasant life and the harsh realities of rural existence. His early paintings predominantly used dark, earthy tones such as browns, greys, and muted greens, inspired by the works of artists like Rembrandt and Frans Hals, whom he admired.

In 1886, Van Gogh moved to Paris, where he encountered the works of the Impressionists and Neo-Impressionists. This exposure led to a significant shift in his style. He began to use brighter colours and experimented with more dynamic brushwork, moving away from the dark and sombre tones of his earlier works. This transition marked the beginning of his journey toward the vibrant and expressive paintings for which he is best known.

In 1888, Van Gogh moved to Arles in southern France. His time in Arles was both highly productive and tumultuous, marked by his struggle with mental illness. Despite his illness, he continued to paint, creating some of his most profound work. On July 27, 1890, Van Gogh shot himself and died two days later at the age of 37.

Van Gogh’s emotional struggle

Vincent van Gogh’s emotional and mental health struggles profoundly influenced his life and work. While there is no definitive diagnosis, it is widely believed that he suffered from several mental health issues, including severe depression, bipolar disorder, and possibly borderline personality disorder. He went through prolonged periods of sadness, hopelessness, isolation, and complete withdrawal from social life. During these episodes, he often stopped painting or wrote about feeling useless, a burden, or emotionally paralysed. In some letters to his brother, he expressed deep despair and a sense that his efforts had no meaning or impact. His behaviour also included sudden shifts in mood and energ. He would go through intense bursts of creative activity – sometimes painting a dozen works in just a few weeks – followed by equally intense crashes, where he became exhausted, anxious, or withdrawn. He intensevely feared abandonment, his relationships were instable and his emotional reactions he brought to extreme.

Van Gogh’s mental health issues became apparent in his early adulthood. Mental illness ran in his family, suggesting a genetic predisposition. Additionally, his financial instability, professional frustrations, and tumultuous personal relationships added significant stress to his life. Van Gogh’s use of alcohol, particularly absinthe, may have further exacerbated his mental health issues.

One of the most well-known episodes in Vincent van Gogh’s life was the ear-cutting incident, which followed a heated argument with his friend and fellow artist, Paul Gauguin, who had come to stay with him in Arles. Van Gogh and Gauguin first met in Paris, where they were part of the avant-garde art scene. They shared a common interest in new approaches to art. Van Gogh appreciated Gauguin’s bold use of colour and symbolic content, while Gauguin respected Van Gogh’s emotive use of colour and dynamic brushwork.

Gauguin arrived in Arles in October 1888, and the two artists initially worked side by side, discussing and influencing each other’s work. However, significant differences in their artistic visions and temperaments soon emerged. Van Gogh’s intuitive and emotional approach to painting clashed with Gauguin’s more methodical and symbolic style. Living together in close quarters exacerbated their personal differences, and Van Gogh’s mental health issues, including bouts of depression and erratic behaviour, further strained the relationship. The tension culminated in a heated argument on December 23, 1888. That night, after Gauguin threatened to leave, Van Gogh experienced a severe mental breakdown and cut off part of his own left ear. This dramatic event led to Gauguin’s immediate departure from Arles. The exact details of the argument are not fully known, but it is believed to have been intense and emotionally charged. Vincent later created several self-portraits that depicted his bandaged ear, reflecting on this traumatic event. These works are among his most famous. Following the ear incident, Van Gogh and Gauguin never saw each other again. However, they continued to correspond sporadically, maintaining a distant but respectful relationship.

After the ear incident, Van Gogh was hospitalised multiple times. He voluntarily admitted himself to the Saint-Paul-de-Mausole asylum in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence in 1889. During his time there, he continued to paint, producing some of his most famous works, despite experiencing frequent episodes of psychosis.

The reception of van Gogh’s work

Van Gogh’s work, initially not well received, gained widespread acclaim only after his death. He often struggled financially, which influenced his work and methods. Due to his limited resources, he sometimes couldn’t afford to pay for models. As a result, he painted numerous self-portraits. Van Gogh created over 30 self-portraits between 1886 and 1889. These self-portraits are not only a study of his own image but also an exploration of different techniques and styles, allowing him to practise without incurring additional costs.

In addition to his self-portraits, Van Gogh would often paint on both sides of the canvas to save money. This practice allowed him to make the most of his limited materials. Some of his paintings hence have another work hidden on the reverse side, which has been discovered through modern technology such as X-ray imaging.

Theo van Gogh, Vincent van Gogh’s brother, played a crucial role in his life and career. Theo provided Vincent with regular financial support, which allowed him to buy art supplies and cover basic living expenses. The brothers maintained a close and deeply supportive relationship, primarily through their extensive correspondence. Theo was an art dealer in Paris, which exposed him to the contemporary art scene. He introduced Vincent to new artistic movements and influential artists, significantly impacting Vincent’s style and techniques. Theo was a tireless advocate for Vincent’s art. He promoted his brother’s work within his professional network, helping to arrange exhibitions and attempting to sell his paintings. Despite these efforts, Vincent achieved little commercial success during his lifetime. After Vincent’s death, Theo continued to promote his brother’s work, helping to secure his posthumous fame. Tragically, Theo died just six months after Vincent, in January 1891, but his efforts were crucial in ensuring that Vincent van Gogh’s artistic legacy endured.

After the deaths of Vincent and his brother Theo, it was Theo’s widow, Johanna van Gogh-Bonger, who played a pivotal role in bringing Vincent’s work to the world’s attention. She inherited Vincent’s paintings and letters, and devoted herself to promoting his art and legacy. Johanna organised exhibitions of Vincent’s work and published his letters, which helped to reveal the depth and passion of his artistic vision. These exhibitions were crucial in introducing his work to a broader audience.

One of the first major exhibitions of Van Gogh’s work was held in Paris, receiving significant attention from both critics and the public. It was organised by Ambroise Vollard, a prominent art dealer in Paris, known for his support of Post-Impressionist artists. As an influential dealer, Vollard had the connections and reputation to attract collectors and critics to the exhibition, significantly boosting Van Gogh’s posthumous fame.

Vincent van Gogh’s paintings remain some of the most expensive and desirable artworks in the world. Notable sales include “Portrait of Dr. Gachet,” which sold for $82.5 million in 1990, “Laboureur dans un champ,” which fetched $81.3 million in 2017, and “Irises,” sold for $53.9 million in 1987. Other significant sales are “L’Allée des Alyscamps,” which went for $66.3 million in 2015, and “Landscape Under Stormy Sky,” sold for $54 million in 2021.

These high prices reflect the legacy and universal appeal of Van Gogh’s artistic vision. He painted in solitude, struggled in silence, and left behind a legacy that would only be recognised long after his death. Today, his life is as closely examined as his brushstrokes. Visiting the museum in Amsterdam, and reading about the prices his work now commands, it’s hard not to think about how easily genius can be overlooked. Still, much of what we know and admire today is thanks to Johanna van Gogh-Bonger, his brother Theo’s widow, who preserved his letters, promoted his paintings, and quietly shaped the image of the artist we now recognise.

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